Dawn Curtis
Introduction and Rationale
This unit will explain how horses entered the Plains Native American culture many years ago. Native peoples traditionally regarded animals in their lives as fellow creatures with which they shared a common destiny. Horses and the Native Americans together played a significant part in American history. For many Plains groups, horses changed nearly every aspect of their life. Specifically, this unit will focus on the impact horses had on the Plains Native American power, warfare, bison hunting and their involvement in Westward Expansion. An extension activity in the curricular area of science will be incorporated. Students will potentially see a parallel between how a horse impacts a group of people and how a nonnative or invasive species affects an ecosystem.
The 5th grade social studies curriculum for Tulsa Public schools begins the school year with a lesson on the Native American Cultural Regions. The lesson dives into the influence each region had on the culture of the individuals living in that region. One of the regions is the Plains; hence, why I chose this topic. The pacing calendar later teaches the settlement of Europeans in what is now the northeast and east coast of our country and the development of the colonies. How and when horses were reintroduced in the Americas by the Europeans will be presented. This will help fill in some of the gaps in the timeline of the history presented in the district curriculum. Also, the pacing calendar never takes us to what happens after the American Revolution. I like the idea of discussing how the horses had an impact on the Plains Native Americans involvement in Westward Expansion. This will give the students a glimpse of what happens next in our history. Coincidentally, the 5th grade science curriculum has lessons on ecosystems which opens opportunities for cross curricular extension activities.
School Demographics
I teach 5th grade at Walt Disney Elementary School in the Tulsa Public School District. The school is in an area with a significantly high population of Hispanic students. Most of the students live in the neighborhood. 100% of the students are on free lunch. We have what I consider decent parental involvement. According to a district survey, students feel safe at Disney, enjoy learning, and have a desire to put effort into their education.
I feel this unit will be specifically interesting to my students because we live in Oklahoma. Parts of 10 U.S. states lie within the Great Plains. They are Montana, North and South Dakota, Wyoming, Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, Texas, and New Mexico. Some of the history discussed in this unit took place in our state. How fun is it to not just learn history but learn history that is relevant to where we live. Finding answers to what happened here many years ago can be potentially intriguing to students.
Content Objectives
Background
Horses changed standards of power and prestige for the Plains Native Americans. For the Indians, horses also changed the method of warfare, hunting, mobility, and lifestyles.
The Plains Native Americans (also known as Indigenous People of the Great Plains) are the original inhabitants of the Western Plains of North America. They are a diverse group of territorial nations, each with a distinct culture. The different nations were all on equal footing until the arrival of the Europeans and the introduction of the horse.1
The horse originated in the Americas over forty million years ago. After spreading to Asia and Europe it became extinct in the Americas for a very long time.2 Horses were reintroduced in the Americas, and they had a significant impact on the Plains Native Americans. They transformed their way of life and became a central part of many tribal cultures.
Arrival of the Plains Indians
The Plains Indians migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait. The Bering Strait, also known as the Bering Land Bridge, was a strip of land that emerged during the last ice age which ended about 10,000 years ago. This strip of land connected Asia to what is present day Alaska.
The Great Plains region is a broad expanse of flat land in North America. It is located east of the Rocky Mountains and west of the Mississippi River. Much of the Plains region is covered in prairie and grassland. The people of the Plains had lived in the region for around 13,000 years and were originally hunter-gatherers following the seasonal migrations of bison until the introduction of corn cultivation around 700/900 CE. After this, they became semi-nomadic, establishing permanent cultural settlements while continuing to hunt bison. 3
Introduction of Horses in the Americas
Horses evolved and inhabited the Americas millions of years ago. They then became extinct in the region before the Native Americans arrived. When the Native Americans arrived, there were no horses. In 1493 Christopher Columbus brought two dozen Andalusian horses on his second voyage to the New World. Reintroducing the horse to North America would transform Native American life, especially for the bison-hunting Plains Indians.4 (There is a belief by some scholars that horses were used by Native American tribes prior to Columbus’ arrival and that they were never truly extinct in North America.) It is evident that the horse, back in its native environment, flourished.
When the natives first saw the horses, they were terrified. It was a beast they had never laid eyes on. They had never seen a creature that had human beings riding on it. As more tribes encountered horses and as time went by their fear diminished. They saw the horse as an amazing creature with great speed and power. They gave the horse names like “elk dog,” “sky dog” and “holy dog”. 5
During this time in history Europeans were colonizing the Americas. The Spanish were ruling the Pueblo tribe in what is now New Mexico. The Spanish possessed a lot of horses. They knew the horses gave them power to be more mobile, hunt and improve warfare. The Spanish knew that if they let the natives got a hold of their horses, it would be a mistake. This mistake could give the natives some power to rebel against them if, and when, they decided. In the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 that is exactly what happened. After nearly a century of enduring harsh rule, the Pueblo Indians drove the Spanish from Sante Fe and captured their horses. They traded the horses with neighboring tribes, and this was the beginning of the spread of horses throughout the region. Nearly every tribe in the west was mounted on horses by the end of the 1700s.
Horses Spread to The Plains
It is commonly believed horses were introduced by Christopher Columbus. However, there is a discrepancy about how and when horses spread across the land. Some continue to believe it was after the Pueblo Revolt that horses spread, but new evidence supports the belief that horses spread through the native tribes prior to European colonization.
The remains of more than two dozen horses have been stored in archeological collections throughout the United States. Researchers have radiocarbon dated and analyzed the DNA of these remains to trace when the animals spread across the region. Three of the horses, with remains from Wyoming, Kansas and New Mexico, date before the Pueblo Revolt. Evidence supports the belief that the horses were part of Native American culture. Some horses had dental damage and bony growths on their skulls which suggest people had put bridles on the animals. Chemical elements in the horses’ teeth suggest they ate maize. 6 Maize is an indigenous crop. also known as corn. It was domesticated by indigenous people in southern Mexico thousands of years ago.
In addition, a Utah couple was doing some extensive landscaping in 2018 and came across some animal bones. It was almost a complete skeleton of a horse. It was originally speculated to be from the Ice Age because of the depth of where the bones were found in the earth. After a study of the bones and the horse’s DNA it was concluded that this horse was not from the Ice Age but was a domesticated horse that likely belonged to the Ute or Shoshone tribe before the Europeans had a permanent establishment in the region. 7 Fractures along the vertebrae of the horse gave evidence that it was ridden without a framed saddle. Wild horses do not have these types of fractures. The horse also appeared to have suffered from arthritis in some of its limbs. The hard life of a domestic horse can have impacts on the skeleton.
The Ute were the earliest inhabitants of Colorado, Utah, Wyoming, and northern New Mexico. Even though the Ute did not inhabit the Plains Region, it is believed horses likely were traded with other tribes spreading throughout the Native American cultural regions. The Shoshone also inhabited the same region as the Ute, but by the 1500s they had crossed into the Great Plains and ventured as far east as the panhandles of Oklahoma and Texas. Some moved south and merged into the Comanche tribe which reside in the Plains region. Hence, comes the belief that horses spread from Spanish settlements throughout the Great Plains by the first half of the 17th century, before the Pueblo Revolt which occurred in 1680.
Even though there are written European documents that claim horses spread after the Pueblo Revolt there is also evidence in indigenous oral traditions explaining that horses spread along native social networks in North America prior to the revolt. “Our cultures have been so misrepresented for so long. Too often history has been told around us, without us,” says Yvette Running Horse Collin, an evolutionary geneticist at the Center for Anthropology and Genomics of Toulouse in France and a member of the Oglala Lakota Nation from South Dakota. 8
Impacts
The introduction of horses into the Plains had several impacts on the culture of the Native Americans in this region. Horses had an impact on power. The more horses a tribe had, the more power they possessed. Horses influenced warfare. They not only made fighting easier but, in many cases, horses caused conflict between tribes leading to more fighting. Without question horses impacted bison hunting. No longer having to hunt on foot meant more killings. This meant more available resources from the bison. Finally, horses had an impact on westward expansion which directly affected the Plains Indians.
Power
Horses represented a tribe’s military and political power. The more horses you had the more powerful you were. This is best represented by the rise of the Comanche tribe. They were the finest horse Indians on the Plains. They used the horse to establish themselves as the most powerful Native American Tribe and the “Lords of the Plains” 9 They could get around faster and farther to hunt, trade, transport goods and even raid other tribes. This made it possible to enjoy a richer material environment than others who did not have as many horses in their tribe.
The Comanche people became renowned horseman by identifying the skills needed to use the horses effectively. They engaged in extensive practice learning how to use the horse as a shield when they rode. They would shoot their guns or arrows while leaning over to one side of the horse to protect themselves from oncoming ammunition. They developed a deep understanding of horsemanship. Horsemanship became an integral part of their way of life. Their proficiency with horses enhanced their mobility, hunting and warfare capabilities which contributed to their reputation as exceptional horseman and well-known power among the tribes of the Plains. 10
With the introduction of horses, many tribes gained more wealth for many reasons. Wealth can contribute to power. One of the reasons they acquired more wealth was they were able to hunt more successfully. They were able to expand their hunting territory. (You will read more about this in another section.) However, with more successful bison hunting, tribes had more resources for building bigger tepees. Some of the daily agricultural burdens were lifted from women which gave them more time to be creative with works of art and making sacred objects. 11 Much of this art has been inspired by the horse. Many individuals or groups with wealth find that their wealth brings power because few people can resist the lure of wealth.
Warfare
Before horses spread through the Plains it is unclear why or how the Plains Native Americans’ warfare was conducted. Using information that is known about other Native American nations, it might have involved a band of warriors sneaking up on another settlement and taking captives or stealing goods. Maybe the captives were used as slaves, kept as punishment for someone from
the enemy tribe doing them wrong, for ransom to get something in return or sometimes just for prestige.
Horses quickly moved across trade routes. After horses spread through the Plains, attacks were more frequent. There was fighting between tribes for control of horses. Allies turned into rivals. They would steal horses to expand hunting territory which brought more wealth to the tribe. Planning a raid on another tribe and capturing enemy horses was a key tactic in inter-tribal warfare. 12
It was considered a rite of passage for a young person who was trying to earn his place as a warrior to sneak into another Indian village and capture a horse. Young men would walk many miles to scope out the enemy village looking for the best looking and strongest horse. They would wait until dark when most were asleep and try their best not to alert the dogs who guarded the villages. Stories are told of many horse owners who would tie a rope to their wrist that was connected to the horse and slide it under the tipi door so they could tug on it in the middle of the night to make sure their horse was still there on the other end. If the young men were lucky enough to sneak into the enemy village, get a horse and make it out alive, then it was expected he would give the horse to someone in need. This was a final act of generosity to top off their bravery. 13
More horses meant more control over the lucrative fur trade. Battles were fought to keep a tribe from trading with the Europeans for guns and ammunition. This meant they would be able to protect their land and resources if they were attacked by another tribe. No tribe wanted another to have the upper hand so to speak. By the mid-1700s the armed and mounted Indian warrior became an impressive presence on the Great Plains that was to be feared and respected. 14
Native Americans of the Great Plains learned to ride from a young age and usually rode bareback with only a blanket for comfort. At long range, a warrior would cling to the side of his horse while firing his own gun or bow and arrow. He would use his horse as a shield against oncoming fire. This amazed and terrified the Europeans. The raids of the Comanche terrified the American settlers. 15
Bison Hunting
Native Americans hunted and traveled on foot before the 16th century. They relied on dogs as miniature pack animals. They hunted bison which are often called buffaloes by mistake. The bison is a symbolic animal of the Great Plains. Bison are the heaviest land animal in North America. They can weigh over 2000 pounds. They can stand taller than 6.5 feet. Even though they are massive animals they can run up to 40 miles an hour and are quick on their feet. They also have sharp slightly curved horns that can grow up to 2 feet long. They graze on the grasses, herbs, shrubs, and twigs on the plains landscape. They live in small bands but come together in large herds during the summer mating season. The bison were a natural resource and critically important to the Plains Native American culture and livelihood. 16
Hunting bison on foot was difficult and dangerous. It was hard work, and the odds of success were low before the arrival of the horses on the hunting scene. The “buffalo jump” was one of the ways hunters had success. They would startle and chase the bison toward a cliff or drop off. When the bison was wounded it was easier to kill.
After horses were reintroduced into the Americas by the Spaniards, hunting practices drastically changed. As previously mentioned, the natives did not know what to think of this animal. As their fear diminished, the horse became very valuable as it increased mobility for the tribes. The use of horses expanded hunting territory and because of this many tribes were encouraged to “leave the corn” and return to the hunter-gatherer societal model. 17 Riding a horse enabled the hunters to travel faster and farther in search of bison herds. The hunting horses of the plains could be trained to run right into a stampeding bison herd. The natives had a newfound speed and efficiency to add to their hunting technique. This meant more hunting success which meant more meat, more hides for clothing and tepees. The Indians used the rawhide for shields which aided in their warfare.
Previously, it was hard to follow herds during their summer mating season. With the use of horses, tribes were able to move entire villages and all their belongings to follow the seasonal hunt. They no longer had to rely on dogs as their pack animals.
As you will read in the upcoming section about westward expansion, the government eventually took horses away from the Plains Native American tribes which meant they could no longer hunt. They were unable to support themselves without hunting to supplement crop growing and gathering. Many tribes eventually fell into poverty, alcohol abuse and material deprivation.
Westward Expansion
While tribes were gaining power, improving warfare, and having more success hunting, the Europeans were occupying the land on the East coast of what is now the United States. They developed colonies but remained under English law. They decided they did not want to be under the control of the king of England, so they rose up and against reasonable odds they won a fight for independence. Eventually, they started expanding westward into new territories and came up with the idea that white Americans were divinely ordained to settle the entire continent of North America. This idea is called Manifest Destiny. The Age of Manifest Destiny lasted from about 1812 to 1867.
As the white settlers traveled west into the native lands conflict arose. The Plains Native Americans felt the white men were encroaching upon their land. There were vicious battles between the Plains Indians and the settlers.
The Comanches put up a fierce resistance to the encroachment of white people onto their lands. They did what they could to disrupt westward expansion. They would hijack wagon trains, kill innocent people, and steal possessions. They would raid settler camps and take captives. The Comanche were effective at disrupting westward expansion. They were some of the best horsemen and that’s what made it so hard for the American Army to prevent them from raiding and attacking.
Finally, the federal government made the decision to hire some of the best Plains Indian horsemen to join their side to help prevent the disruption of westward expansion and settlement. Many Native Americans were hired to join the United States Calvary. With the aid of these horsemen the Plains Indians were defeated, and westward expansion continued. Afterward, the Army would sometimes slaughter the Indian’s horses to take away their power so they would not be able to revolt against the white settlers again. This caused the natives to stay on reservations where they could no longer hunt. They had to go back to being farmers instead.
“Horse Nation” is the term given to the period when the Plains Indian horse culture was in full bloom. The horse gave power to tribes and nations, it aided in warfare and caused conflict between villages, it made bison hunting more successful which led to more wealth and the horse also played a big part in westward expansion which impacted the Plains Native Americans. Horse Nation was just a short time in Native American history. It lasted just over a century from the 1750s to about the 1870s when the Native Americans’ horses were taken away and they were forced to relocate. 18
There is still an evident strong bond between the American Indians and the horse. Native people have paid homage to horses by making art that honors their grace and bravery. Horses have been incorporated into their spiritual and cultural lives to this day.
Teaching Strategies
The essential question for students to answer throughout the unit will be: How did the introduction of the horse impact the Plains Native Americans? Students will be challenged to make predictions about how they think horses impacted the Plains Native Americans. In this unit, students will learn how the horse brought power to tribes, affected warfare, influenced hunting practices, and influenced disruption of westward expansion which eventually led to the Native Americans being deprived of their horses and sent to live on reservations. Following are some teaching strategies to help teachers guide learning and give students a means to answer the essential question:
Interactive Notebook
Interactive notebooks require students to interact with, manipulate and think about new skills as they complete activities. Students will keep a notebook to record and complete assignments. They will keep a running list of new and unfamiliar words throughout the unit. They will put their map work in this notebook, create a running timeline, make predictions, list discussion questions, and display graphic organizers to show comprehension. The interactive notebook provides a great resource to reference everything that has been taught and learned.
Academic Discourse
Academic discourse is a format of communication that uses language to facilitate higher level understanding. Students will engage in group discussions asking and answering questions while challenging each other’s ideas. They will make predictions and share rationales for their predictions. There is potential for this sharing to prompt more discussion about the topic. This will give them an opportunity to share their interpretation and opinions of what they are learning in the unit.
Graphic Organizer
Graphic organizers guide students to create a visual to help them understand information. Students fill in information in a logical and organized way which will help them remember it. They are beneficial for both visual and hands-on learners. A timeline is one type of graphic organizer students will use in this unit. Students will show understanding by creating a timeline of events. The events will include key happenings that relate to our learning. In an extension activity the students will use a graphic organizer to show the effect of a non-native species on an ecosystem.
Classroom Activities
Map Work
After learning where the Native Americans came from, students will find and label locations on a map. They will be able to identify Asia, the Bering Strait, the Plains region, Rocky Mountains, Mississippi River, and the national borders north and south of the Plains region within the United States. They will trace the possible migration path of these people from Asia.
Timeline
Timelines are often used to help students understand the order or chronology of historical events in a subject. It is sometimes difficult to visualize the timing of events and a timeline can help. Students will show understanding by creating a timeline of events. In this case the events will include key happenings that relate to when horses originated and were reintroduced in the Plains region as well as when the natives migrated to North America, The Pueblo Revolt, the Horse Nation period, and Manifest Destiny.
Here are some events for this timeline:
40 million years ago – Horses originated in what is now the Americas.
20,000 years ago – People migrated across the Bering Strait
700-900 CE (Common Era) – Introduction of corn cultivation which allowed natives to establish permanent cultural settlements while continuing to hunt bison.
1493 – Christopher Columbus brought two dozen Andalusian horses on his second voyage to the New World
1680 – Pueblo Revolt. After nearly a century of enduring harsh rule, the Pueblo Indians drove the Spanish from Sante Fe and captured their horses. They traded the horses with neighboring tribes.
Late 1700s – Nearly every tribe in the west was mounted on horses.
1750s -1870s – Horse Nation. The term given to the period when the Plains Indian horse culture was at its height.
1812-1867 – The Age of Manifest Destiny. The idea that white Americans were divinely ordained to settle the entire continent of North America.
1907 – Oklahoma is established as the 46th state.
Cross curricular Extension Activity: Making a Connection
Organisms can survive only in environments in which their needs are met. A healthy ecosystem is one in which multiple species of different types are each able to meet their needs in a relatively stable web of life. Newly introduced species can damage the balance of an ecosystem. Students will read an article entitled “Are horses responsible for introducing non-native plants along forest trails in the eastern United States?” Students will read the study, interpret the results, and display the findings in a graphic organizer.
Students will engage in the six steps for close reading. The purpose is to go beyond just a standard reading of the text to gain a deeper understanding and comprehension. First, they will read the text. Second, the students will annotate by circling unknown words, putting question marks where they do not understand and highlighting key details. The students will specifically be looking for the purpose of the study, what the study entailed, how and where the study was conducted and the findings of the study. After annotating the article, students will read it again and continue to mark it up. The goal is for students to notice and note more information. Fourth, they will define unknown words. They can use dictionary or context clues to define the words. Step 5 is to read the text again. They will read it for a third time to deepen their understanding. This is where discussions can take place either whole group or with partners. Finally, students will respond to the reading by demonstrating their understanding through completion of the graphic organizer.
The graphic organizer will have the question to be answered at the top: Are horses responsible for introducing non-native plants along forest trails in the eastern United States? Underneath the question will be a space for students to answer “why”. This is where the purpose of the study will be described. The middle of the graphic organizer will be divided into three columns labelled “what”, “when”, and “how”. The students will fill this in during the last step of the close reading process. At the very bottom of the graphic organizer will be a space where students can write a conclusion statement for the results of the study.
Resources
Key Academic Terms
- Bering Strait – also known as the Bering Land Bridge, a strip of land that emerged during the last ice age which ended about 10,000 years ago. This strip of land connected Asia to what is present day Alaska.
- Plains Native Americans – Native American people living in the region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and the northern border of Canada through Texas in the South
- Culture – The customs, arts, social institutions and achievements of a particular nation or people. A way of life.
- Bison – The largest mammal in North America. Bison are bovine which refers to cattle. The are also known as the American buffalo, but here are differences. The bison were a natural resource and critically important to the Plains Native American culture and livelihood.
- Cultivate – to raise or grow especially on a large scale.
- Andalusian horse – known as a pure Spanish horse whose breed has been recognized as distinct since the 15th century. Throughout history it has been known as a war horse.
- Warfare – engagement in or the activities involved in war or conflict.
- Pueblo Revolt of 1860 – a revolution against Spanish religious, economic and political institutions imposed upon the Pueblo Native Americans. It is the only successful Native uprising against a colonizing power in the United States.
- Manifest Destiny – the idea that white Americans were divinely ordained to settle the entire continent of North America.
- Calvary – soldiers or warriors who fight mounted on horseback.
- Horse Nation – the time between the 1750s and the 1870s when the Plains Indians used horses to transform the history of the West.
Student Literature
Students will need access to hard copies of the article written by Stith T. Gower entitled “Are horses responsible for introducing non-native plants along forest trails in the eastern United States?” This article is required for the cross curricular extension activity. You can look up this article by the title and author’s name or use the following website URL. (This is not a live link.) https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0378112708004842?fr=RR-2&ref=pdf_download&rr=8417f775be614def
The Horse and the Plains Indians: A Powerful Partnership by Dorothy Hinshaw Patent
Great Plains Indians (Discover the Great Plains) by David J. Wishart
Teacher Reading List
“How Early Humans First Reached the Americas: 3 Theories” by David Roos
The Pueblo Revolt of 1680 by Andrew L. Knaut
Horse Nations: The Worldwide Impact of the Horse on Indigenous Societies Post-1492 by Peter Mitchell
Bibliography
Animals. “American Bison | National Geographic,” May 10, 2011. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/facts/american-bison
CU Boulder Today. “Horse Remains Reveal New Insights into How Native Peoples Raised,” February 18, 2021.
Gower, Stith T. “Are Horses Responsible for Introducing Non-Native Plants along Forest Trails in the Eastern United States?” Forest Ecology and Management 256, no. 5 (August 2008): 997–1003.
“Impact of the Horse | A Song for the Horse Nation – October 29, 2011 through January 7, 2013 – The National Museum of the American Indian – Washington, D.C.,” n.d.
Mark, Joshua J. “Plains Indians.” World History Encyclopedia, October 19, 2023.
Milloy, John S. The Plains Cree: Trade, Diplomacy, and War, 1790 to 1870. Winnipeg, Manitoba CA: University of Manitoba Press, 1990.
“Plains Indian Warfare.” In Wikipedia, February 25,2024
Roos, Dave. “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians.” HISTORY, July 12, 2023.
Sullivan, Will. “New Research Rewrites the History of American Horses.” Smithsonian Magazine, April 3, 2023. Will Sullivan is a science writer based in Washington D.C. His work has appeared in Inside Science and NOVA Next.
Appendix
Oklahoma Academic Social Studies Standards
6.1.1 Apply geographic information to support analysis from primary and secondary sources located in a variety of texts.
6.1.3 Integrate visual information, draw conclusions, and make predictions from geographic data and analyze spatial distribution and patterns by interpreting that data as displayed on geographic tools.
Oklahoma Academic Science Standards
5.LS2.1 Develop a model to describe the movement of matter among plants, animals, decomposers, and the environment.
5.LS2.2 Use models to explain factors that upset the stability of local ecosystems.
Oklahoma Academic Reading Standards
5.1.L.1 Students will actively listen using agreed-upon discussion rules with awareness of verbal and nonverbal cues.
5.1.L.2 Students will actively listen and interpret a speaker’s verbal messages and ask questions to clarify the speaker’s purpose.
5.1.S.2 Students will engage in collaborative discussions about what they are reading and writing, expressing their own ideas clearly in pairs, diverse groups, and whole-class settings.
5.2.R.1 Students will explain how key supporting details support the main idea of a text.
5.2.R.4 Students will summarize facts and details from an informational text.
5.3.R.7 Students will distinguish the structures of informational texts: ● compare/contrast ● cause/effect ● problem/solution ● description ● sequential
5.6.W.2 Students will organize information found during research, following a modified citation style
Notes
1 (J. Mark, “Plains Indians”, World History Encyclopedia)
2 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
3 (J. Mark, “Plains Indians”, World History Encyclopedia)
4 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
5 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
6 (W. Sullivan, “New Research Rewrites the History of American Horses,” Smart News)
7 (D.Strain, “Horse remains reveal new insights into how Native peoples raised horses,” CU
Boulder Today)
8 (W. Sullivan, “New Research Rewrites the History of American Horses,” Smart News)
9 (J. Mark, “Plains Indians”, World History Encyclopedia)
10 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
11 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
12 (J. Mark, “Plains Indians”, World History Encyclopedia)
13 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
14 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)
15 (“Plains Indian Warfare,” Wikipedia)
16 (“American Bison,” National Geographic)
17 (J. Mark, “Plains Indians”, World History Encyclopedia)
18 (D. Roos, “How Horses Transformed Life for Plains Indians,” Native American History)