Energy Demand and Supply: Renewable Solar Energy

Sarah Akinrinlola

Introduction

In recent years, various technological innovations have emerged to effectively address the disparities between the supply and demand for renewable energy. The energy demand is inherently variable, fluctuating significantly throughout the year due to seasonal variations influencing consumer behavior, heating and cooling requirements, and the operational demands of industrial and manufacturing sectors  ^1,2. Additionally, the supply of solar energy is characterized by daily fluctuations influenced by natural cycles, including solar irradiance and prevailing weather patterns. Factors such as the diurnal cycle, indicated by the timing of sunrise and sunset, and adverse meteorological conditions, including overcast skies and snowfall, can markedly impact solar energy generation³. These fluctuations frequently result in pronounced periods of energy surplus, where production exceeds consumption, and energy scarcity arises when demand surpasses the available supply.

I have an ongoing practical experience that serves as a case study. My family uses a 10 kVA solar inverter system to power our home, which also functions as my home office in a rural suburb of Lagos, Nigeria. The specification of an installed 10KVA/48V inverter with lead-acid tubular batteries of an array of 12*12V/220ah batteries for energy storage supports this system, and solar panels having the following spec details: 2x5KVA/48V inverter, battery cabinet, 24x350W mono panels, solar panel mounting frames, cables and accessories.  

A battery system is mandatory to ensure we have power when needed. Moreover, because our home is connected to the electrical grid, home batteries are helpful in a power outage situation. Solar battery technology stores the electrical energy generated when solar panels receive excess solar energy in the hours of the most remarkable solar radiation. During the day, there is enough solar radiation to charge the system effectively. The voltage produced by PV panels remains roughly the same regardless of the weather, but the current (amps) and the power (watts) will vary. Silicon is the raw material used to make solar cells. The twenty-four solar panels, mounted on the south-facing rooftop, are arranged in an east-west direction to optimize exposure to the sun at sunrise and sunset. As a result, the equipment operates successfully during the day while being continuously charged by solar energy.

The stored energy in the batteries is used at night when there is no sunlight. Solar irradiation is highest when the sun is directly overhead and unaffected by atmospheric conditions such as cloud cover, humidity, and atmospheric particles.

In general, locations closer to the equator receive more solar energy due to the higher sun angle. However, we have noticed that the stored energy is often depleted based on the load capacity we use at night and the capacity of the storage batteries. Typically, between 4:00 AM and 5:00 AM, before sunrise, we frequently need to charge the batteries using an alternative power source, such as 30kVA diesel-powered generators. This comes with disadvantages that include deleterious environmental effects such as increasing CO₂ emissions (carbon footprints) leading to lungs and breathing challenges and ecological disturbances, noise levels generally between 50dB to 150dB causing headaches and elevated stress to the human body, exorbitant cost of procurement and maintenance. This highlights the need for improved solar energy storage during peak production times and continuous enhancement of the storage system’s design and capacity optimization. By effectively capturing and storing energy during periods of high production, these technologies facilitate a more reliable and balanced energy supply, ensuring that future energy requirements can be met sustainably.

As the global population is projected to reach 10 billion by 2050, energy demand is anticipated to rise by 15%. The 2024 ExxonMobil Report¹³ emphasizes the increasing significance of solar energy in light of declining fossil fuel reserves, underscoring the need to develop a skilled workforce proficient in solar technologies.

I propose a comprehensive lesson plan focused on Solar Energy Solutions, intended for implementation over a half-semester and aimed at 11th and 12th-grade students, with the flexibility for adaptation to introductory middle school classes. The pacing will include organized activities supplemented by assessments designed to develop students’ skills. The curriculum will align strictly with state and national educational standards, with provisions for international contextual adaptations.

The instructional methodology will emphasize foundational concepts, including light propagation and energy conservation principles, utilizing real-world examples to enhance contextual understanding. Each lesson will begin with a brief review designed to reinforce prior knowledge.

Classroom activities will explore the principles of light behavior, energy conservation, and energy storage systems such as batteries. Students will be encouraged to expand their scientific vocabulary, enabling them to articulate complex concepts effectively within science and engineering domains. Proposed laboratory projects include constructing simple solar energy systems, allowing students to translate theoretical concepts into practical applications. Additionally, structured field trips to solar-powered facilities connect classroom learning with real-world implementations. Summer internships will offer students practical experience and networking opportunities within the solar technology sector.

Classroom Environment

My school environment is vibrant and diverse, encompassing a wide range of students and faculty from various backgrounds. For the 2023-2024 school year, our student body comprises approximately 1,200 students supported by around 100 dedicated faculty and staff members. While a significant portion of the students and staff are native English speakers, many others who are English Language Learners (ELL) require additional academic support ^{9, 10}. We utilize advanced tools such as pocket talk devices and various assistive technologies for effective translation and communication to assist these students.

Our school takes pride in representing diverse nationalities and ethnicities, including American Indians (4.9%), Hispanics (46.9%), American Whites (17.0%), African Americans (20.2%), Asians (2.9%), and individuals of multi-racial backgrounds (8.2%) ^{9, 10}. This diverse cultural landscape enriches the educational experience and mirrors the economic diversity within our community. This is particularly evident through our provision of free and reduced-price lunches for qualifying students. Approximately 55% of the student population pays no fees, while the remaining 45% contribute varying amounts based on their financial circumstances. It is essential to note that these percentages are rough estimates and may fluctuate over time.

My lesson plans are meticulously crafted and translated into Spanish to accommodate my diverse student body’s varying literacy and comprehension levels. This rich diversity necessitates that each lesson is scaffolded effectively, ensuring all students can access the material while promoting engagement and understanding of fundamental concepts in physical science.

Teaching Philosophy and Pedagogy

I engaged 9^th and 10^th grade students in three laboratory experiments showcased during the TIFT Fellowship workshops at the University of Tulsa Science and Technology Laboratories. The first experiment illustrated the principles of electromagnetism by utilizing two-coin magnets, a 3-volt 1500mAh lithium battery, and a 6-inch copper wire. This arrangement facilitated observing the interactions between magnetism and electricity, creating a magnetic field and converting electromagnetic energy into mechanical energy.

The second experiment focused on converting thermal energy into kinetic energy. We used 500 ml water, an 800 ml plastic container, a floating platform, a candle (the thermal energy source), and a thin, twisted aluminum pipe. This demonstration illustrated how molecules move when water is heated.

The third experiment employed small 3-inch by 3-inch solar panels to exemplify the principle of harnessing solar radiation from the sun for electricity generation. We simulated solar radiation through a cell phone flashlight, thereby illustrating the conversion of solar thermal energy into electrical energy, which was measurable and discernible with precision using voltmeters.

The hands-on laboratory experiments proved to be engaging and captivating for numerous students. They showed a particular interest in the tangible elements they could see, feel, and touch, exhibiting an eagerness to engage in and observe the experimental processes. Many unit lesson curriculum concepts presented in the classroom were reinforced and clarified throughout each laboratory experiment. The students generally enjoy using their handheld devices, watching videos and movies frequently, and spending time on FaceTime. To capture their interest in the curriculum, as a science teacher, I incorporate technology, such as videos and hands-on demonstrations, resembling the content they typically consume. Many students take pictures of notes on the whiteboard and record laboratory experiments. Even though this limits their ability to use and further develop their fine motor skills, their class participation is enhanced by focusing their attention on the curriculum through laboratory experiments, using their dynamic energies and attachment to their handheld devices. When students actively engage in activities that align with their interests, it reduces truancy and disruptive behaviors, ultimately improving overall discipline in the school environment.

Unit Content

To successfully teach solar energy concepts to high school students, the following physical principles and concepts must be prerequisites: 1) principles of light, 2) solar radiation, 3) energy conservation and transformation, 4) energy storage and batteries, and 5) energy demand and supply. With a solid understanding of these fundamental concepts, students can grasp solar panel design, manufacturing processes, and other essential components for generating electricity from solar sources. Additionally, they will learn about storing this electricity in batteries to address demand and supply gaps caused by diurnal and seasonal changes in climate. Developing efficient and affordable batteries to store excess solar energy is crucial for deployment in underserved rural and remote areas where grid systems or electricity supply is unreliable. Such systems can be implemented on a small scale in remote locations to provide power wherever needed. This paper succinctly discusses the principles of physical science to elaborate on solar energy concepts for capturing and transforming thermal energy into electrical energy

Solar Energy Capture, Storage, Conservation, Transformation

The principles of light, including incident rays (PV receivers), reflected rays (reflectors and absorbers), refraction, focal points (common points), and the diffusion (scattering) of light rays, are fundamental to the capture of thermal rays from the sun. Some of it is absorbed, scattered, and reflected as sunlight passes through the atmosphere. Part of the radiation reaching an object is absorbed, and the remainder is reflected. Usually, the absorbed radiation is converted to thermal energy, increasing the object’s temperature. However, human or natural systems can convert part of the absorbed radiation into another form, such as electricity or chemical bonds, as in the case of photovoltaic cells or plants ^{3, 4}. The proportion of reflected radiation is the object’s reflectivity or albedo.

This captured energy is then engineered and converted into electricity for domestic and industrial use, representing the transformation of thermal energy into electrical energy. Solar panels are strategically installed and oriented in an east-west direction to align with the sunrise in the east and the sunset in the west. Sun rays should be perpendicular to PV panels. Sunlight should hit them at a 90-degree angle. This positioning maximizes ray capture throughout the day, ensuring optimal exposure to sunlight and thereby minimizing reliance on lead-acid batteries during the crucial hours when sunlight is present.

Solar radiation (the total energy received per unit area over a given period in joules per square meter, J/sq.m (J/m^2 = Jm^−2), or kilowatt-hours per square meter, kWh/sq.m (kWh/m^2), in the form of electromagnetic radiation, is transmitted through various electromagnetic concepts, including radiation, convection, and conduction. The sun emits a broad radiation spectrum across many wavelengths, including infrared ⁵. This spectrum effectively transfers thermal energy to materials capable of absorbing it. Materials that can absorb thermal electromagnetic energy effectively are referred to as “black bodies” since the color black absorbs all wavelengths of radiation visible to the human eye. An ideal black body can absorb and emit all wavelengths of the electromagnetic radiation spectrum accurately ⁵.

The electricity generated from photovoltaic (PV) cells is often lower due to significant variations in solar irradiation throughout daily and yearly cycles. This fluctuation in power production, combined with the challenges of storing large amounts of electrical energy, poses difficulties for the large-scale integration of photovoltaics into the energy system. Most installations utilize silicon cells, which are costly to manufacture but can achieve energy conversion efficiencies of around 18%. 

Energy conservation and transformation is a thermodynamic concept. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy using photovoltaic (PV) panels or mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. PV solar panels consist of cells, each made up of a compound semiconductor wafer structure that includes both P-type and N-type materials ⁶. These can be either monocrystalline or polycrystalline. The interaction between the P-type and N-type materials generates a flow of electricity. Due to the continuous presence of sunlight, this process occurs consistently, producing substantial amounts of electrical energy.

Energy Storage: Solar irradiation is temporary, so capturing and converting it into usable energy is essential. Usually, energy is stored in lithium-ion batteries ^{4, 10, and 11} and controlled by intelligent software to handle charging and discharging cycles. They can virtually eliminate blackouts in an off-the-grid lifestyle. The stored energy commonly originates from on-site solar photovoltaic panels, generated during daylight hours, and the stored electricity is consumed after sunset when domestic energy demand peaks in homes unoccupied during day ⁷. The amount of solar radiation that reaches any one spot on the earth’s surface varies by geographic location, time of the day, season of the year, local landscape, and weather. The output of, for example, a photovoltaic panel partly depends on the sun’s angle relative to the panel. Energy storage systems, such as batteries, transform captured electrical energy using chemical and thermodynamic principles into available energy when demand exceeds supply. A solar or photovoltaic battery is an electrical accumulator that stores the energy generated by photovoltaic panels in a solar energy system. These batteries supply electrical energy when the photovoltaic panels do not produce enough electricity. When the solar panels generate more electricity than the system requires, they provide all the necessary energy, with any excess used to charge the batteries.

Lead-acid batteries convert electrical energy received from photovoltaic modules into chemical energy through a reaction between two different materials, typically found on the positive and negative plates, when immersed in an electrolyte solution consisting of sulfuric acid and water ^{8, 11}. Electricity flows from the battery when an electrical circuit connects the positive and negative terminals.

The capacity of a battery to withstand repeated charging and discharging cycles is referred to as its cycling resistance. Solar batteries operate using direct current (DC) electricity, which aligns with the energy generation of photovoltaic panels, thus simplifying the charging process. However, most household devices operate on alternating current (AC), necessitating the inclusion of an inverter to convert DC to AC ^{8, 11}. Solar batteries serve as a practical energy storage solution for solar panel systems, with solar generators and portable solar chargers being common examples.

It is important to note that lead-acid batteries may fail prematurely if they are not fully recharged after each cycle. Leaving a lead-acid battery discharged for an extended period can lead to a permanent loss of capacity. While these batteries can deliver high currents and possess a good power density, proper maintenance is essential for prolonging their lifespan.

On the other hand, lithium-ion batteries, although difficult to recycle, are popular due to their relatively high charge cycle and absence of memory effect. In contrast, lead-acid batteries are easier to recycle, and lead possesses a high resale value. However, they have much shorter useful lives than lithium-ion batteries of similar capacity, primarily due to their lower charge cycles ⁸. Additionally, lead is a toxic heavy metal, and the sulfuric acid in the electrolyte has significant environmental implications.

Common rechargeable battery chemistries include:

1. Lead-Acid Battery: Lead-acid batteries hold the largest market share among electric storage products, with a single cell producing about 2 volts when charged. This technology has been extensively developed, requiring minimal upkeep and low cost. However, the battery’s available energy capacity tends to discharge quickly, resulting in a short lifespan and low energy density.

2. Nickel-Cadmium Battery (NiCd): NiCd batteries use nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. Since cadmium is a toxic element, nickel-cadmium batteries have largely been replaced by nickel-metal-hydride (NiMH) batteries.

3. Nickel-metal-Metal Hydride Battery (NiMH): These batteries are now a common choice for consumer and industrial applications. They use a hydrogen-absorbing alloy for the negative electrode instead of cadmium.

4. Lithium-Ion Battery: Widely used in consumer electronics, lithium-ion batteries offer one of the best energy-to-mass ratios and have a very slow self-discharge rate when not in use.

5. Lithium-Ion Polymer Battery: These batteries are lightweight and can be manufactured in various shapes.

6. Aluminum-Sulfur Battery: Utilizing rock salt crystals as the electrolyte, aluminum, and sulfur are much cheaper alternatives than traditional lithium batteries.

Energy Demand and Supply: Solar energy is one of the few alternatives that has the potential to meet our future energy demands on a large scale. Estimates indicate that our energy consumption will likely double by 2050 ^14,15,16. Solar energy offers several geopolitical advantages as our most evenly distributed energy source. Solar energy can be generated in small units, such as rooftop solar panels, which can then be converted into electrical energy. Photovoltaics (PV) can be deployed in various forms, from small, integrated installations on rooftops or electronic devices to larger production units in dedicated fields. PV technologies hold significant promise for providing electrical power to rural communities in developed nations and small societies in developing countries lacking electrical grid access.

Future Benefits

Solar energy harvesting technology is gaining traction as a powerful alternative to traditional electricity generated from fossil fuels. This innovative technology captures sunlight, converting it into usable energy that can perform various functions, which we conventionally depend on electric power to execute. Recent advancements in photovoltaic materials, such as Perovskite solar cells and improvements in energy conversion efficiencies, are significantly boosting the effectiveness of solar energy systems ⁹. Developing smart grids and energy storage solutions, like advanced battery technologies, further enhances the reliability and productivity of solar energy harvesting efforts. As these technologies continue to evolve, they hold the potential to greatly diminish our reliance on fossil fuels and pave the way for a more sustainable energy future.

Unit Plan

Duration: A typical curriculum unit is designed to span half a semester, providing a focused yet comprehensive exploration of physical science concepts. Extending this course over an entire academic year may benefit 11th or 12th-grade students who have demonstrated proficiency in physical science, achieving at least a C grade. This extended duration allows deeper engagement with the material and fosters a more profound understanding of complex scientific principles. An introductory class, building blocks, and simulation models may be offered to middle school students as part of a physical science, technology class, or another suitable curriculum unit that is science and tech-focused.

Pacing: The pacing plan will include detailed daily and weekly activity schedules and various assessment methods to gauge student understanding and progress. These activities should be strategically organized to allow students sufficient time to absorb the material thoroughly, develop essential skills, and connect learning to their interests. Additionally, the pacing plan should facilitate a smooth transition for students who wish to pursue higher educational opportunities in science, ensuring they are well-prepared for more advanced studies.

Standards: The curriculum standards must comply with state and national physical science guidelines, ensuring students receive a quality education that meets recognized educational benchmarks. Furthermore, these standards should be adaptable for international teaching and practice, enabling educators to implement this curriculum in diverse educational contexts. Collaboration with key organizations such as the Department of Energy and other relevant scientific agencies is recommended to enhance the curriculum’s relevance and rigor. This partnership will aid in aligning the curriculum with current scientific advancements and industry practices, ensuring that students are equipped with the knowledge and skills needed for future academic and career success.

Teaching Strategies

1. Principles and Concepts: In this module, students will explore the behavior of light rays and the intricacies of wave propagation through various media, including air, water, and solid materials. They will gain a comprehensive understanding of the thermodynamic principle of energy conservation, emphasizing its critical role in sustainability. Additionally, students will delve into different energy storage systems, such as batteries, supercapacitors, and thermal storage methods, learning how each system operates and its applicability in real-world scenarios.

2. Vocabulary: This segment will focus on enhancing students’ scientific vocabulary in science and engineering. Students will engage with and define essential terminologies, enabling them to articulate complex concepts in academic and professional settings. The aim is to empower students to confidently incorporate this specialized vocabulary into everyday discussions, facilitating clearer communication in their future careers and business interactions.

3. Laboratory and Hands-on Projects: This hands-on learning experience will allow students to design and construct simple solar energy systems. To create functional prototypes demonstrating energy conversion and storage, they will assemble various components, including photovoltaic cells, inverters, and batteries. Each theoretical principle introduced in class will be complemented by practical laboratory exercises, where students can engage tactilely with the materials and technologies, reinforcing their understanding through active participation and experimentation.

4. Field Trips: To deepen their understanding of solar energy applications, students will participate in organized field trips to see firsthand solar-powered homes, eco-friendly office buildings, and local industrial facilities that utilize solar energy in their operations. They will also have the opportunity to visit expansive solar farms and energy generation stations, where they will learn about large-scale solar energy production and the technology behind it. These excursions aim to inspire students by connecting classroom theory with practical, real-world implementations.

Classroom Activities

• Do Now/Warm-up: A quick interactive “Do Now” session should be conducted at the beginning of each lesson, where students engage with simple questions that reinforce previously taught concepts. This method serves as an effective segue into introducing the next topic while clearly outlining the lesson’s objectives and key vocabulary. A simple ‘Do Now’ question may test whether the student understands the concept of incidence and reflected, refracted, and diffused rays.
• Engage, Explore, Explain, and Encounter the phenomenon. In this multifaceted approach, teachers strive to convey complex subject matter to students by incorporating a dynamic mix of instructional methods. “Engage” involves capturing students’ interest through interactive activities and thought-provoking questions, stimulating their curiosity about the topic. The “Explore” phase is when educators encourage students to delve deeper into the subject through hands-on experiments, group discussions, or multimedia resources. This exploratory learning fosters critical thinking as students investigate real-world applications and connect to prior knowledge. The “Explain” segment is pivotal; teachers articulate the core concepts and principles using various teaching methods and visual aids like diagrams and charts, auditory elements such as discussions and lectures, and tactile experiences like model building or simulations. This diverse approach caters to different learning styles, ensuring that all students can grasp the material effectively. At the “Encounter” stage, students can apply their understanding in practical scenarios. This could involve collaborative projects, presentations, or problem-solving exercises that reflect their demographic backgrounds and individual learning speeds. By employing various teaching strategies, from direct instruction to collaborative learning and scaffolding, teachers can create a supportive environment that nurtures engagement and comprehension, enabling students to thrive academically.
• Objectives: Defined objectives should be established for every lesson, detailing what the teacher aims for students to achieve by the end of the session. These objectives should be specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound (SMART), ensuring students understand the expected learning outcomes.
• Vocabulary: Introduce and explain new terms essential for understanding the subject matter. By developing vocabulary in the context of solar energy, students will enhance their decoding, comprehension, and literacy skills, which are crucial for effective communication within the scientific community. Vocabulary instruction should involve active engagement techniques to encourage retention and application.
• Videos: Given that a significant portion of high school students (up to 80%) utilize handheld, internet-enabled devices throughout their day, integrating multimedia resources can significantly enhance the learning experience. The utilization of carefully selected videos can make complex scientific concepts more accessible and engaging, thereby catering to diverse learning styles.
• Laboratory Experiments: Hands-on laboratory experiments are vital for translating theoretical knowledge into experiential learning. These activities should incorporate a blend of in-person and virtual learning experiences. The labs should allow students to actively observe, manipulate, and explore scientific concepts. By using multisensory approaches, such as visual, vocal, and tactile (touch, smell, and taste) experiences, students are likely to retain information and develop a deeper understanding of the material.
• Field Trips: Organizing field trips is an effective way to provide students with practical learning experiences outside the classroom environment. Visits to solar farms, manufacturing facilities, or local community projects allow students to see real-world applications of solar energy concepts. Engaging with field engineers, industry professionals, and experts during these excursions enables students to gain insights and mentorship, further enriching their educational journey.
• Assessment, Quizzes, CFU (Check for Understanding): Implement a structured assessment strategy that categorizes students based on their understanding of the concepts taught, successfully mastering, emerging, or struggling with the material. The lesson plan should be adaptable, accommodating varying levels of comprehension while ensuring that each student has access to appropriate support. The accommodation should be tailored to meet individual student needs, considering their unique circumstances and prior knowledge. Regular formative assessments should be incorporated to monitor progress and adjust teaching strategies accordingly.
• Reteaching or Reviewing (if Necessary) – It may be necessary to review or reteach certain concepts based on the insights and data collected during formative assessments. These assessments provide valuable information about student understanding and learning gaps. Decisions regarding which concepts to reteach will be guided by clear evidence, ensuring that instruction is tailored to meet the needs of all students ¹⁰. The scope and depth of reteaching will also be influenced by the remaining time in the academic year; if time is limited for in-class instruction, additional options such as tutoring sessions or targeted homework assignments may be offered to encourage students to work towards mastery of the subject. These measures support student learning and provide opportunities for extra credit, reinforcing the importance of perseverance and academic growth.
• Exit Ticket – As students transition to their next class schedule, they will complete an exit ticket consisting of a few straightforward questions designed to be finished in under five minutes. These brief questions at exit will assess whether the lesson’s learning objectives have been successfully met. Each student will be asked to respond thoughtfully to questions that gauge their understanding of the material covered, allowing educators to identify areas of comprehension and any topics that may require further review. By reflecting on their learning, students will also have the opportunity to articulate their thoughts and insights regarding the lesson.

Conclusion

The global community must enhance access to reliable and affordable energy through diverse solutions to address critical energy challenges. The world population is projected to reach 10 billion by the year 2050. According to the ExxonMobil Report (2024), the development and implementation of solar energy technologies are anticipated to grow steadily annually leading up to 2050 in response to the surging energy demands of 15 percent.¹³ As reserves of fossil fuels continue their inevitable decline, the shortfall is expected to be mitigated by the increased utilization of renewable energy sources, particularly solar power, which is forecasted to play a pivotal role in this transition. This expansion requires the training and availability of a skilled workforce comprising solar panel engineers and technicians to meet the industry’s evolving demands.

Appendix

1. PS.PS1.1 Use the periodic table as a model to predict the relative properties of elements based on the patterns of electrons in the outermost energy level of atoms.
2. PS.PS1.2 Construct and revise an explanation for the outcome of a simple chemical reaction based on the outermost electron states of atoms, trends in the periodic table, knowledge of the patterns of chemical properties, and formation of compounds
3. PS.PS1.5 Apply scientific principles and evidence to provide an explanation about the effects of changing the temperature or concentration of the reacting particles on the rate at which a reaction occurs.
4. PS.PS1.7 Use mathematical representations to support the claim that atoms, and therefore mass, are conserved during a chemical reaction.
5. PS.PS2.1 Analyze and interpret data to support the claim of a causal relationship between the net force on an object and its change in motion, as described in Newton’s second law of motion.
6. PS.PS2.2 Use mathematical representations to support the explanation that the total momentum of a system of objects is conserved when there is no net force on the system.
7. PS.PS2.3 Apply scientific and engineering ideas to design, evaluate, and refine a device that minimizes the force on a macroscopic object during a collision.*
8. PS.PS2.5 Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that an electric current can cause a magnetic field and that a changing magnetic field can cause an electric current.
9. PS.PS3.1 Create a computational model to calculate the change in the energy of one component in a system when the change in energy of the other component(s) and energy flows in and out of the system are known.
10. PS.PS3.2 Develop and use models to illustrate that energy at the macroscopic scale can be accounted for as either motions of particles or energy stored in fields.
11. PS.PS3.3 Design, build, and refine a device that works within given constraints to convert one form of energy into another form of energy.
12. PS.PS3.4 Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that the transfer of thermal energy when two components of different temperatures are combined within a closed system results in a more uniform energy distribution among the components in the system (second law of thermodynamics).
13. PS.PS4.1 Use mathematical representations to explain both qualitative and quantitative relationships among frequency, wavelength, and speed of waves traveling in various media.
14. PS.PS4.2 Evaluate questions about the advantages and disadvantages of using a digital transmission and storage of information.
15. PS.PS4.4 Evaluate the validity and reliability of claims in published materials of the effects that different frequencies of electromagnetic radiation have when absorbed by matter.

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Notes

1. Chen, C. Julian. Physics of Solar Energy. (2011).
2. Introduction to Solar Radiation. Newport Corporation.
3. Chiras, Dan. Solar Electricity Basics
4. Scrosati, Bruno. History of Lithium Batteries.
5. Dimitriev, Oleg, Tsukasa Yoshida, and He Sun
6. Hersch, P., and K. Zweibel
7. Solar Resource Glossary. National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
8. Solar Radiation Basics. U. S. Department of Energy. https://www.energy.gov/eere/solar/solar-radiation-basics.
9. Tulsa Public Schools website/curriculum standards
10. https://oklaschools.com/school/72I001715/
11. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storage
12. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_irradiance?form=MG0AV3
13. ExxonMobil. Global Outlook Report. 2024
14. Cook et al., 2010
15. International Energy Agency, 2010
16. US Energy Information Administration, 2011