Geothermal Energy

Sheila Gilliam

Introduction

Renewable energy is important for the future of the earth’s atmosphere and biodiversity. Biodiversity is the variability of life on earth, which is measured on various levels widely distributed across the world when it comes to energy. Today, most of the world’s energy demand is currently supplied from fossil fuels, which leads to the accumulation of greenhouse gases, air pollution and rising global temperatures. Fossil fuels also increase environmental, economic and social risks that cannot meet the demand for electricity. (1) Geothermal is an exciting renewable energy source that can help the world reduce reliance on fossil fuels, have lower carbon emissions, and the potential for job creation and economic growth, while also promoting cleaner air and water.

Demographics

The general demographics of East Central High School are 90.5% economically disadvantaged and 9.5 not disadvantaged. The majority of students are Hispanic (86.3%), Race Asian/Pacific Islander (9.7%), White (2.7%), American Indian (.8%), Black (.2%), two or more races (.2%). My students are in a level 3 special education class (Intellectually Delayed I.D.) program at East Central High School and are in 9th through 12 grades. All the students are on an Individualized Education Program (IEP). Four out of seven students this year are nonverbal. These students have the most significant levels of disabilities and challenges. Support and supervision are extremely important for each of my students. Because of the nature of IEPs, this curriculum unit has been developed in consideration of learning standards at the pre-k to 3rd grade level.

Unit Content

Greenhouse Gasses (GHG)

Global warming is the increase of the earth’s average temperature by human and natural activities. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and nitrous oxide(N2O) increase global warming and contribute to health and other environmental distress. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most significant contributor to human caused greenhouse gas emissions. The world emits around 50 billion tonnes each year measured in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq). GHG emissions come from deforestation, agriculture, and various industrial processes that also release significant amounts of GHG. This traps heat and contributes to climate change. (1)

We must mitigate these harmful gas emissions that go into the earth’s atmosphere that trap heat and buy products for businesses, the energy industry and other sectors. The difference between air pollution and GHG emissions is that air pollution refers to the presence of substances in the atmosphere that have a detrimental effect on humans and other living organisms while GHG are gases that have the ability to absorb and trap heat. The top three sources of GHG are carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide, all of which reached record highs in 2023. It is our responsibility to give students the building blocks of information they need to make positive changes in the future. The chart below explains global greenhouse gas emissions for the year of 2016 which highlights how energy is the primary generator for greenhouse gas emission by 73.2%. (2)

Several alternative energy sources are being studied and used, which offer low-carbon or zero-carbon electricity generation. Solar energy harnesses the sun’s energy through PV panels that generate electricity with little to no greenhouse gasses. Wind energy utilizes wind turbines to convert kinetic energy into electricity which is reliable and clean. Hydropower uses a flow of water through dams to turn turbines that will make clean electricity which has proven to be a reliable source. There is a lot of work/research being done using Ocean Energy in which waves and tides are used to generate electricity with instruments in the water that gathers the wave energy. Geothermal extracts the Earth’s heat from beneath the ground to generate electricity which is efficient and a constant source. Currently the implementation of geothermal energy is limited, but it shows promise that could be realized with further research.

Energy

Energy is stored and expended in different forms but exists as either potential or kinetic energy. Potential energy is stored energy, and kinetic energy is most easily explained as an object in motion. A rock at the top of a hill has potential energy but as it rolls down the hill the potential energy is converted into kinetic energy. While there are a variety of energy sources/movements, it is important to know the difference between nonrenewable and renewable sources. Non renewables are limited resources, for example crude oil, natural gas, and coal. Nonrenewable energy sources leave toxic waste in our air, water and soil which is harmful to all who live on our planet. Renewable energy sources are naturally occurring and inexhaustible such as sunlight (solar), wind, water (hydropower), and geothermal (underground heat). Both nonrenewable and renewable sources are working today. Electricity is being delivered to factories, schools, businesses, and homes with a network of sources through both nonrenewable and renewable networks. (4)

Sources of energy such as coal, oil and natural gas are called fossil fuels because they come from animal and plant fossils, and burning these fuels for energy releases a significant amount of CO2. About 64% of the world’s electricity comes from burning fossil fuels. (3) The breakdown is: Coal 38%, Oil 3.0% and Gas 23.2%. (5)

There are a wide variety of alternative energy sources, with the most well-known being solar, wind, and hydroelectric. Geothermal, on the other hand, is a new and exciting renewable energy that many students may have not heard about. The students will learn the importance of all renewable energy sources, but our focus will be geothermal which is heat energy beneath the earth’s surface. The students’ attention will be drawn to the different activities in science labs that will help them understand where energy comes from and how scientists can extract the energy from the earth’s surface and from underground. The students will investigate climate changes due to greenhouse gases and the options for clean renewable energy.

In order to understand how geothermal energy from the earth can be converted into electrical energy, it is important to learn about the variety of different energy forms. Heat energy is a result of small particles vibrating at high speeds. (6) Electrical energy is carried by charged particles called electrons moving through wires. (7) Potential energy is stored energy – climb something and you will be able to jump, roll, or dive back down. (8) Chemical energy is food, fuel, batteries that store energy within the chemical compounds they are made of, which is released by reactions. (9) Mechanical energy is the energy that is possessed by an object due to its motion or due to its position. (10) Mechanical energy can be either kinetic energy (energy of motion) or potential energy (stored energy of position). Objects have mechanical energy if they are in motion and/or if they are at some position relative to a zero potential energy position (for example, a brick held at a vertical position above the ground or zero height position.) Kinetic energy is moving. The heavier the object the more kinetic energy they have at a given speed. (11) When it comes to geothermal energy, the heat is first transferred to water, which then becomes steam. The kinetic energy of the steam is then used at the surface to spin a turbine, enabling a generator to convert this mechanical motion into electrical energy with the help of magnets and copper wire. There is no GHG generated in this process.

This is an example of the law of conservation of energy: the idea that energy is never created or destroyed but it can be converted into different forms. Geothermal energy is a technology that supplies power independent of the changing climate. The International Energy Agency estimates geothermal worldwide technical potential with present-day technology at 200GW. (13) This is equivalent to 200 billion watts, which is a massive amount of power for roughly 150,000 to 200,000 average homes depending on usage patterns. (14) Fun fact: In the movie Back to the Future, the “flux capacitor” famously needed 1.21 gigawatts to time travel. (15) Another example, which is real life, would be 1.21 gigawatts would power over 12 million 100-watt light bulbs or be equivalent to about 1.6 million horsepower. (16)

Geothermal Resources

Geothermal resources are irregularly distributed because of the unequal distribution of volcanoes, hot springs and heat manifestations at specific locations over the Earth’s surface. (17) The most thermally rich resources are concentrated in environments with abundant volcanic activity. They are also controlled by plate tectonic processes of spreading centers evident as volcanic chains associated with subduction (a geological process that occurs when one tectonic plate slides beneath another, descending into the Earth’s mantle). (18) It happens at convergent boundaries in a geological area where two tectonic plates collide with each other, resulting in one plate sliding beneath the other (subduction) and often leading to the formation of mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes along the boundary line, essentially, it is a “destructive” plate boundary where crust is destroyed as the plates converge between tectonic plates, where the heavier plate sinks into the mantle zones and hotspots. (19)

Exploration for a Well

Once the exploration starts and a geological target is found, an optimization depends on the way the power plant is configured. (21) Other geophysical investigations such as gravity and magnetic studies are conducted followed by temperature gradient holes and water and gas geochemical studies. If the studies are favorable, core or slim hole drilling is undertaken. They include aeromagnetic studies (describes the study of the Earth’s magnetic field) especially from the air. They use airborne instruments, and the data collected can be used to create maps and models of the Earth’s crust. (22)

Specialty Wells

Drilling the wells for geothermal energy is a niche within the larger drilling required in most exploration programs for geothermal formations. (23) Geothermal formations are at elevated temperatures, higher than drilling for oil and the rock is harder and more abrasive and can cause corrosion and other problematic situations. Depths of geothermal wells vary according to location and can reach 3000 meters and deeper. (24) The results derived from reservoir engineering depend on the quantity and quality of the information as well as its associated processing and interpretation. This includes the information that allows the prediction for the next 20 to 30 years. (25)

Different Types of Geothermal Wells

The geothermal field will maintain continuous monitoring. There are different types of monitoring. Downhole monitoring, surface monitoring, and introducing the collected data into a numerical model of the reservoir to keep track of the temperature of the well and be warned if there is excessive cooling. (26) Engineered Geothermal Systems is a promising technology that drills for hot rock that is not accessible using conventional geothermal technology. In France a plant has been tested since 2008 and commercially operated since 2016. It is powered by a combination of closed-loop circulation of reinjected fluid, heated by hot dry rock and hot brine, from a deep aquifer. This is the only project where at least part of the heat comes from hot dry rock. (27)

Regarding geothermal power generation sustainability and renewability, the goal is for the system to have longevity. There are several geothermal fields around the world, for example, in Italy, New Zealand and the United States. Renewability can be achieved globaly. The chart below are the top 10 countries by geothermal energy capacity, as of January 2024. (28)

Rank	Country	Capacity (MW)
1	United States	3937
2	Indonesia	2653
3	Philippines	1984
4	Turkey	1734
5	New Zealand	1207
6	Kenya	985
7	Mexico	976
8	Italy	916
9	Iceland	786
10	Japan	601

Cost

The cost of production for geothermal electricity generation is important. Most capital costs in geothermal power plants are incurred up front in identifying and developing the resource. When production pumps are used, their maintenance is generally the main component of total operational costs.

Electricity generated from geothermal energy is a mature technology that supplies power mostly independent of changing climate and has significantly increased in recent decades prompting governments to implement measures to meet this demand. (29) Investigating and advancing multiple types of sustainable energy sources to support the world economy is crucial in achieving a sustainable and enduring energy solution. (30) The transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy sources has significant environmental and social advantages. The strategies encompass the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere, the restoration of species populations and the mitigation of air pollution. (31) While utility scale geothermal systems are the focus for most geothermal research, residential geothermal systems are also well-established and growing in number. A 4-ton system will cost a homeowner approximately $30,000. (32)

Top Ten Countries

United States: The Great Basin region of the western USA is one of the largest geothermal provinces on Earth. The majority of the geothermal systems in the region are an abundance of geothermal activity that is linked to high geothermal gradients resulting from crustal extension and thinning. (33) With a widespread regional heat source, permeability is typically the limiting factor for geothermal activity. Faulting can increase the permeability of rocks through generation of interconnected fracture networks in the core and damage zone of a fault. (34) Specific fault geometries and favorable structural settings have been shown to facilitate fracture-dominated permeability along fault systems, resulting in conduits for fluid transport (35) because geothermal systems within the Great Basin are primarily controlled by Quaternary faults. A Quaternary fault is one that has been recognized at the surface and that has moved in the past 1,600,000 years (1.6 million years). That places fault movement within the Quaternary Period, which covers the last 2.6 million years. The identification of established favorable structural settings provides a useful method for guiding exploration. (36)

Blind or hidden geothermal systems with no surface manifestations, such as hot springs or fumaroles, pose a key challenge to discovering and developing new geothermal systems in the Great Basin region. Historically, most of the geothermal resources developed into power plants and were initially targeted based on surface manifestations of a hydrothermal system. Over the past decade, exploration focus has shifted to finding blind geothermal systems that are entirely concealed in the subsurface, have no surface manifestations, and are typically buried by alluvium which is sediments, such as sand, clay, silt, and gravel, that are deposited by running water, typically in riverbeds, floodplains, and deltas, or at the base of mountains (37) and sedimentary rocks in Neogene basins. Neogene is a geological period that spans from 23.03 million to 2.588 million years ago, encompassing the Miocene and Pliocene epochs. (38) In Oklahoma, the most significant Neogene deposits are located in the panhandle, a region in the north- western part of the state. You can also find dinosaur tracks that are fossilized in old river beds. (39)

Indonesia: Indonesia, situated in the “Ring of Fire,” boasts significant geothermal potential, estimated and aims to increase geothermal power generation to 9,000 MW by 2025, aiming to become a global leader in geothermal energy. The country has 117 volcanoes and the highest number of active volcanoes in the world since the 1950s. Indonesia has the world’s largest geothermal potential. (41) Indonesia has significant geothermal potential. Challenges include exploration costs, infrastructure deficits in remote areas and the need for policy reforms to stimulate investment and expansion in the sector which accounts for 40% of the world’s geothermal resources. (42)

Philippines: The Philippines is one of the top producers of geothermal power in the world due to the country’s location in a volcanic zone, with a total installed capacity of approximately 1.9 gigawatts (GW) of geothermal power. The Philippines’ current electricity generation mix consists of 31% coal, 4.2% natural gas, 32.2% oil, 4.1% hydropower, and 14.6% non-hydropower renewables, consisting mainly of geothermal energy generation. Electricity demand in the Philippines is continuing to grow, and the nation’s power grid is expected to face a shortfall of more than 150,000 gigawatt-hours (“GWh”) per year starting in 2040. Geothermal energy is expected to continue to play a major role in the Philippines’ clean energy transition. The Philippine Department of Energy (DOE) encourages geothermal power development through awarded geothermal service contracts (GSCs) for predetermined areas to qualified renewable energy developers through the Open and Competitive Selection Process. The GSCs are issued for exploration, development and utilization of geothermal power, covering the entire life of the plant from pre-development to construction and operation pre-development to construction and operation. (43)

Turkey: There are 65 geothermal power plants (GPPs) in Türkiye as of 2022, concentrated in Denizli, Manisa, Aydın, Çanakkale, Afyonkarahisar, and İzmir. Turkey has become the 4th country globally in terms of installed geothermal power, contributing 3% to the national electricity consumption. Turkey has significant geothermal energy potential, with over 1500 KW thermal springs and several geothermal fields located throughout the country. (44)

New Zealand: Geothermal energy is an important renewable energy source for New Zealand, providing around 18% of its electricity. Geothermal generation is expected to grow in the coming decade, and will be one of the country’s largest sources of renewable energy. Geothermal energy taps the earth’s natural heat flow from the hot mantle (at around 1000oC) up into the cooler crust. New Zealand has an abundant supply of geothermal energy because it is located on the boundary between two tectonic plates. (45) The crust is thin along this rift and supports at least 23 distinct geothermal plumes or fields. Of these fields, eight currently generate electricity or supply direct users. These are: Wairakei, Tauhara, Rotokawa, Mokai, Nga Tamariki, Ohaaki, Kawerau, and Ngāwhā.(46)

Kenya: Beneath Kenya, the African plate is splitting in two. That cleave creates hydrothermal vents that harnesses geothermal energy. This is a renewable source of energy coming from hot water that bubbles up from deep underground. (46)

Mexico: Mexico has a huge amount of untapped geothermal potential. Surveys carried out by CFE in the 1980s suggested that Mexico had more than 1,600 hot springs and thermal waters, in more than 900 geothermal systems, across 26 states. Around 50% of these sources had a temperature of between 62 and 100°C, 40% were between 100 and 149°C, and 10% were either cooler than 62°C or hotter than 149°C. It was estimated that if just 0.1% of these resources were developed it would provide over 40,000 MWth of installed capacity. Although people have used geothermal heat, in the form of thermal springs, for heating and bathing for centuries, harnessing its power to generate electricity is much more recent. Innovations in the technology required to access this heat and transform it into electricity have only emerged in recent decades. There has been a significant underinvestment in developing these technologies further, as countries worldwide continued to rely heavily on fossil fuels. But as governments around the globe aim for a green transition, there has been a recent upsurge in investment in the geothermal energy sector, which we expect to encourage greater funding into Mexico’s geothermal potential. (47)

Italy: To find the first geothermal power plant in the world you have to go to Tuscany, Italy in the early twentieth century. Over two centuries of innovation and sustainability with 34 active power plants. There are two areas of geothermal development: a historical one, located around Larderello, where geothermal activity is part of the economic, productive and socio-cultural fabric of the area, and one around Amiata, where the first activities began in the late 1950s. Today Tuscany is clearly moving in the direction of sustainable energy hosting 34 of our geothermal power plants (a total of 37 generating units), which use underground energy by cutting down on fossil fuels, thereby helping to achieve energy self-sufficiency. (48)

Iceland: Iceland’s energy and electricity needs are nearly fully met by renewable energy sources, hydropower and geothermal power, and only 10% of the country’s primary energy sources comes from oil. Today, geothermal energy provides the population of Iceland with approximately 61% of its entire energy supply, thermal and electric. Most of the country’s geothermal energy is used for heating providing nearly the whole population with warm water, delivered by district heating systems from either low-temperature fields or from combined heat and power generation and heating plants in high-temperature geothermal fields and power. (49)

Japan: There are 98 geothermal power plants in operation with the capacity of approximately 540 MW in Japan. Matsukawa Geothermal Power Plant, commenced in 1966, is the first plant of 23.5 MW in Japan. Hatchobaru Geothermal Power Plant, the largest geothermal power plant in Japan, has a total capacity of 110.2MW. While in terms of geothermal potential Japan has approximately 23,000 MW, estimated to be the third largest in the world. Its geothermal installed capacity is ranked tenth in the world in 2015.

Teaching Strategies

This curriculum encompasses lessons designed for pre-kindergarten to the third-grade level, which is relevant for my specific classroom. Teaching renewable energy with the emphasis on geothermal will be the main topic in the classroom for two weeks. My student’s research will be done in my classroom and outside. We will be using Legos for building windmills, solar panels, a dam with real water, and turbines to show kinetic energy. Geothermal exploration will be mining in our garden/field outside. “Hot Hands” will be planted underneath the ground, the students will have a trowel and a map to discover the warm spot on the grass. By reading a map, they could possibly feel for the warm dirt and then dig it up to find the “Hot Hand” and a piece of candy for them to keep. We will all make volcanoes out of paper mache and paint them to look like there is lava running out, to reinforce that volcanoes are extremely hot. Short videos on volcanoes will be shown along with other short renewable energy videos online. The videos will be shown on the day we explore a different renewable energy topic. My class will also paint posters with new science vocabulary they are learning. This will show the school in the hallway what they are learning. The students will also keep up with a daily Science Journal which will have the student’s drawings and work about clean energy innovations that will keep our world clean. One lesson will have students attending a high school science classroom and participating with other high school students working on a geothermal lab.

Note: Sciencebuddies.org is a wonderful place to find hands-on science, in action, that my students love to do. You will find several ideas/experiments that can be used in your classroom to support renewable energy. Science buddies also have short videos on several lessons that enriches the curriculum.

Unit Outline

Lesson 1: Vocabulary. Words include drill, hot spring, geyser, core, mantle, crust, estimate, lithosphere, geothermal heat pump, geothermal technician, geothermal scientist, geologist. Students will have the word and the definitions which they will match and glue them in their lab book. We will have a volcano in the classroom that will come apart and a color sheet of a volcano. The students will learn that the further we go below ground, the hotter the temperature will be.

Lesson 2: Hot Springs, Geysers, Volcanos review. Color activity – Cross section of the earth that shows the continental crust, oceanic crust, lithosphere, mantle, and volcano.

Lesson 3: The country Iceland. We will talk about what a plant does. People work at a “plant.” Definition of the powerhouse: a structural unit or components which guards the turbine, generator, and other electrical components. Each student, with watercolors, will paint their own power plant.

Lesson 4: Geothermal Energy Trade-offs- High cost of digging, Digging in the right place? How to identify geothermal sources. Hide hand warmers in the location where the class will dig outside to let the students feel the heat beneath the dirt and sand. While outside, the students will also use a shovel to try and dig a big hole in the ground. Digging is hard work.

Lesson 5: Study the structure of the earth and where the Ring of Fire is located on the World Map. Students will have the map of the world and we will highlight the top 10 countries on the map to show how many overlap with The Ring of Fire.

Resources

• Renewable Energy by Joshua Sneideman and Erin Twamley
• Science by DK Smithsonian written by Abigail Beall, Jack Challoner, Adrian Dingle, Derek Harvey, Bea Perks Consultant: Jack Challoner
• How to Be Good at Science, Technology & Engineering by DK Authors: Robert Dinwiddie, John Farndon, Clive Gifford, Derek Harvey, Peter Morris, Anne Rooney, Steve Setford Consultant: Derek Harvey and Penny Johnson
• How to Be A Scientist by Steve Mould

Appendix: Oklahoma Academic Standards

Prekindergarten (PK): Science Exploration PK.S.1 Engage in play to explore patterns in the natural and designed world. PK.S.2 Make observations to describe objects in the natural and designed worlds. PK.S.3 Notice and describe similarities and differences among plants, animals and objects. PK.S.4 Share noticing and wondering of the natural and designed worlds. PK.S.5 Ask questions based on curiosity about the natural and designed worlds. PK.S.6 Engage in investigations based on curiosity about the natural and designed worlds.

Kindergarten (K): Motion and Stability of Forces(PS2) K.PS2.1 Plan and conduct an investigation to compare the effects of different strengths or different directions of pushes and pulls on the motions of an object. K.PS2.2 Analyze data to determine if a design solution works as intended to change the speed or direction of an object with a push or pull. Energy (PS3) K.PS3.1 Make observations to determine the effect of sunlight on the Earth’s surface. K.PS3.2 Use tools and materials to design and build a structure that will reduce the warming effect of sunlight on an area. From Molecules to Organisms: Structure and Function (LS1) K.LS1.1 Use observations to describe patterns of what plants and animals (including humans) need to survive. Earth Systems (ESS2) K.ESS2.1 Use and share observations of local weather conditions to describe patterns over time. K.ESS2.2 Construct an argument supported by evidence for how plants and animals (including humans) can change the environment to meet their needs. Earth and Human Activity (ESS3) K.ESS3.2 Ask questions to understand the purpose of weather forecasting to prepare for and respond to severe weather. K.ESS3.3 Communicate solutions that will reduce the impact of humans on the land, water, air, and/or other living things in the local environment.

1st Grade: Waves and Their Applications in Technologies for Information Transfer (PS4) 1.PS4.1 Plan and conduct investigations to provide evidence that vibrating materials can make sound and that sound can make materials vibrate. 1.PS4.2 Make observations to construct an evidence-based account that objects can be seen only when illuminated. 1.PS4.3 Plan and conduct an investigation to determine the effect of placing objects made with different materials in the path of a beam of light. 1.PS4.4 Use tools and materials to design and build a device that uses light or sound to solve the problem of communicating over a distance. Earth’s Place in the Universe (ESS1) 1.ESS1.1 Use observation of the Sub, Moon, and stars to describe patterns that can be predicted. 1.ESS1.2 Make observations at different times of year to relate the amount of daylight to the time of year. Earth and Human Activity (ESS3) 1.ESS3.1 Communicate solutions that will reduce the impact of humans on the land, water, air, and/or other living things in the local environment.

2nd Grade: Matter and Its Interactions (PS1) 2.PS1.1 Plan and conduct an investigation to describe and classify different kinds of materials by their observable properties. 2.PS1.2 Analyze data obtained from testing different materials to determine which materials have the properties that are best suited for the intended purpose. 2.PS1.3 Make observations to construct an evidence-based account of how an object made of a small set of pieces can be disassembled and made into a new object. 2.PS1.4 Construct an argument with evidence that some changes caused by heating or cooling can be reversed and some cannot. Earth’s Place in the Universe (ESS1) 2.ESS1.1 Use information from several sources to provide evidence that Earth events can occur quickly or slowly. Earth Systems (ESS2) 2.ESS2.1 Compare multiple solutions designed to slow or prevent wind or water from changing the shape of the land. 2.ESS2.2 Develop a model to represent the shapes and kind of land and bodies of water in an area. 2.ESS2.3 Obtain information to identify where water is found on Earth and that it can be solid or liquid.

3rd Grade: Motion and Stability: Forces and Interactions (PS2) 3.PS2.1 Plan and conduct investigations on the effect of balanced and unbalanced forces on the motion of an object. 3.PS2.2 Make observations and/or measurements of an object’s motion to provide evidence that a pattern can be used to predict future motion. 3.PS2.3 Ask questions to determine cause and effect relationships of electric or magnetic interactions between two objects not in contact with each other. DCI Code & Recovery 3.PS2.4 Define a simple design problem that can be solved by applying scientific ideas about magnets.
Ecosystems: Interactions, Energy, and Dynamics (LS2) 3.LS3.2 Use evidence to support the explanation that traits can be influenced by the enviroment.
Earth’s Systems (ESS2) 3.ESS2.1 Represent data in tables and graphical displays to describe typical weather conditions expected during a particular season. 3.ESS2.2 Obtain and combine information to describe climates in the different regions of the world. Earth and Human Activity (ESS3) 3.ESS3.1 Make a claim about the merit of a design solution that reduces the impacts of a weather-related hazard.

Notes

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