Tina Berry
Introduction
The human skeleton, specifically the human skull, is the base unit of identification and symbol of “being human.” Many people, myself included, are fascinated by skulls. Some cultures celebrate through the skull, such as the Hispanic culture with Día de los Muertos, the Day of the Dead. Though not directly forbidden, Chinese releases of some video games edit the use of skulls and skeletons due to China’s censorship policies. While the possession and sale of skulls is not illegal in the US, there are restrictions, with Louisiana being the only state where possession is forbidden (1). Still, the hunt for skeletons is ongoing around the world. Archaeologists and Anthropologists from every country scour the layers of the Earth’s crust for signs of life from the past. Slowly, they are piecing together the evolution of our planet and showing us the faces of humans through time and how we came to be.
If we look at a chimpanzee, a Neanderthal, and a modern human, side by side, what similarities do you think we will see? Common bones, standard structure, similar features? You may picture an upright figure with a similar skull, rib cage, arms, and legs, as well as similar hands and feet. Even though there are many more similarities than differences, they are easily discernible, of course. Though most people can tell the difference by looking at an image of each one, they can also be distinguished through individual proportional measurements. All three stem from the same evolutionary tree branch, yet all three are distinct species.
Students will start this unit by determining the features, specific abilities, and accomplishments that make us human, and then identify which of these things were also true 10,000 years ago. For example, today we have technology that no other species has, but 10,000 years ago humans did not have technology, but did have clothing and shoes. The unit focus will then turn to the skull: commonalities and differences between individuals from different cultures and the three species. Students will look at data, photos, and skull specimens of a chimpanzee, a Neanderthal, and a human to determine how an individual’s skulls and facial features compare and contrast between the species. Students will investigate facial features in artistic portraits and sculptures to better understand what different ethnicities and species look like and how their proportions vary. They will then set up still lifes with skulls to represent individuals or groups of people, e.g., a housewife, a ballerina, a football player, Vikings, or pirates, and then sketch them. Finally, students will illustrate and model their understanding of what they have learned with an original art piece.
This unit is intended to aid students’ understanding of genetics, human proportions, evolution, and why different people have different facial features. This topic was chosen because of students’ difficulties when learning the proportions of the face and body in humans and their general lack of understanding of the skull, muscles, and tissues, not to mention the genetics involved with modern human variation.
Demographics
Our school serves students in sixth through twelfth grade. Though we are all together, we are technically a separate middle school and high school, and also have a community college on campus that serves juniors and seniors. Students can also go off campus for tech school, college courses, and various apprenticeships. Our students have a lot of opportunities at their disposal. We have a very high graduation rate and a decent rate of students graduating with tech skills and college credits.
According to Oklaschools.com, our school is almost 70% Hispanic, 8% Black, 12% White, 4% Native American, and 6% claiming two or more ethnicities. Our rate of English Language Learners is 68%, though most of these students are bilingual. 96% are economically disadvantaged, and 14.5% have some form of disability, typically a learning disability (2).
In my art room, classes vary in size between 15 and 30. Advanced classes are generally smaller due to so many students going to Tech or the Community College in the upper grades. Students often come to me saying they don’t want to leave my class, but they have to in order to do the advanced programs. I am ok with that. In fact, I always hope my integrated lessons will spark a love in students for something they can pursue, even if it is hard to lose them and their talents to outside sources of education.
Unit Content
Primates
Primates, in general, differ from other mammals in that they have forward-facing eyes, fully enclosed eye orbits, larger cranial vaults, reduced snout, and versatile dentition. These are all things that chimpanzees, neanderthals, and modern humans have in common as primates. Other unique features in primates include opposable thumbs and toes, the ability to grasp things, and having nails instead of claws. Along with the similarities, many things separate man from chimpanzees and Neanderthals. The size of the brain cavity and adaptations in vision, intelligence, and abilities were essential for the evolution of our species (4). An excellent source to view the skeletons of these three online is the American Museum of Natural History (5). Students can view skulls and skeletons on the website to easily explore and study them.
How do your mother and father contribute to your features? Maybe you have your mom’s eyes or a nose just like your grandpa’s. DNA determines a lot about a person, from hair color to the length of their middle toe. Features sometimes have cultural and societal influences unique to a particular person. Other features are commonly seen in cultures all over the planet. The chimpanzee and Neanderthal have features and proportions that coincide with and are strongly similar to those of the human species, but are uniquely specific to their species. Each species inherits its DNA and unique features from its parents.
It is important to note that humans did not evolve from chimpanzees or Neanderthals. Instead, they developed alongside each other, following different evolutionary paths from a common ancestor. There were many variations of human lines; in the end, ours won out, and the rest went extinct. Humans and Neanderthals did mix and interbreed, however. This is why most humans outside of Africa still carry some Neanderthal DNA to this day. The book “Lost Anatomies: The Evolution of the Human Form” is an excellent reference piece for creative images of chimpanzees, Neanderthals, and humans (6). I intend to use multiple images in the book to show my students examples of John Gurche’s fabulous artistic interpretations of anatomy and evolutionary changes.
Humans
Anthropologists study the human species’ origin, development, societies, and cultures. Understandably, they also look at other species that are the most similar to humans: extinct human species and immediate ancestors. They are employed by universities, police forces, private businesses, and even the federal government. Studying the influences that create human facial features is important to artists, surgeons, forensic biologists, facial recognition artists, medicolegal death investigators, coroners, and even museums. Biological Anthropologists look specifically at the evolution of the human species and the interconnection of DNA with cultural and societal behaviors to create “us”.
Bipedalism
The biggest move that advanced us separately from primates to humans was bipedalism. Walking and running on two feet have been determined to have evolved a couple of million years before speech and largely separated man from animal (7). Many theories exist as to why humans evolved into walking on two feet animals we are today, including the need to carry food to family, the change from arboreal to flat land living, and the change in availability of food.
As modern humans further diverged from their counterparts in intelligence, so did they in all aspects of life. “Living humans speak, use language, depend fully on complex material culture, and have advanced cognition—living apes do not have these characteristics” (8). According to Harvard Professor of Anthropology, Daniel Lieberman, human faces, brains, and body size have been decreasing for the last 10,000 years, as have other species around the world since the end of the last ice age. Changes in the shape of the skull seem to be due to changes in the brain. The changes have made the brain smaller, but neural pathways have become more complex, and new connections have been made in different areas of the brain. His studies show that the human face is smaller even than it was 300 years ago. A large part of this is due to softer foods in our diets, thus smaller muscles are used for mastication (9). In the article for the Harvard Gazette, Lieberman says, “Everything in human evolution is controversial”. This is understandable, as there was no written evidence to be found and studied from early hominins, Neanderthals, and archaic humans, and what we do have in the form of bones and cultural items are often up for debate. As anthropologists, archeologists, and others studying the Earth and its history find more evidence of life, pieces of knowledge will fit together to help the bigger picture, but it is unlikely we will ever have a solid, undebatable understanding of the evolution of man.
The Human Skull
Our skulls have a few unique features that other species do not. Most primates have a honing complex between the canine and first molar, meaning they sharpen their teeth as they chew. Humans are non-honing. We have shorter canines that tend to get duller instead of sharpening as we chew (10). The enamel on human teeth is thicker than in many other primates, possibly due to our eating harder foods such as nuts and seeds. The only other primate with thick enamel is the orangutan, who also eat harder foods (11). The jaw muscles have visibly become more vertical, and the maxilla and mandible have shortened. Image 2 shows a diagram of the human skull. The human brain is larger and more complex than other primates. The increased brain size in humans has forced changes in the skull that extend the occipital bone down, the frontal bone up and forward, and expand the parietal bone, compared to that of a chimpanzee in Image 3.
Chimpanzees
Chimpanzees share approximately 98.8% of their DNA with humans. They are humans’ closest living relatives. That small 1.2% difference is all that separates the two species, but equals about 35,000 differences. Each gene that makes up every living thing on the planet has something akin to a volume control that can be turned up and down. These changes in “volume” can change any cell in any number of ways (14). This is why we are so close in DNA, but still appear to be so different from chimpanzees. The “volume” for hair was turned up for chimpanzees all over their bodies, and although humans have the same number of hair follicles, we generally tend to only have long hair on our heads. Our settings are simply different.
Looking at the skeleton of a chimpanzee, you will notice many things (See the American Museum of Natural History link). Longer arms allow the chimpanzee to move on all fours, even though it can easily walk on its feet for short distances. Its pelvis is noticeably taller than a human’s, and the pelvic floor is long and flat. These differences are beneficial for childbearing and walking quadrupedally. Image 3 shows the forward thrust of the maxilla and the mandible (mouth area). The nasal opening is quite similar between the chimpanzee and the human. However, the angle of the face doesn’t allow for a full nose like a human. The dipped frontal lobe of the chimpanzee and eyebrow crest mean no eyebrows are needed on the chimpanzee. Human eyebrows protect the eyes from dust, sweat, and other things that may trickle down into the eyes, whereas the crest on the chimpanzee takes care of that issue.
Neanderthals
At one point in history, all three of these species lived during the same period, though Neanderthals were the only ones not to survive into the modern world. Neanderthals, our closest ancient human relatives (98-99% shared DNA), have a lasting impact on us today. Some of us modern humans have up to 2% Neanderthal DNA, thus proving that Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis did interbreed (15). They are considered archaic humans who evolved alongside, but separately from, modern humans. It has been shown that Neanderthals and modern humans originally evolved separately, in different regions, and on different evolutionary lineages, mostly in Asia and Europe. No physical or DNA proof of Neanderthal existence has been found in Africa, though DNA evidence in humans today shows that there is Neanderthal DNA in some living Africans.
Comparing the modern human to the Neanderthal is quite interesting. The Neanderthals’ brain was approximately the same size as a human’s, if not larger. However, the Neanderthals were not nearly as advanced or intelligent as the humans that existed alongside them. Their brains were simply not as complex without the organization and neural connections that modern humans have. They were intelligent, using tools for daily chores and teamwork for hunting. They used fire for cooking and protection and stones to create different tools for different jobs. The Neanderthals were not “cavemen”, as we think of them today, though they definitely lived in caves, as did modern human alongside them. The features of Neanderthals’ faces are very similar to a modern human. The biggest forward-facing differences are in the brow ridge, the cheek bones, and the nose. In a side view, the skull was lower and longer than the human. The skeletal structure of the Neanderthal is a bit larger, on average, than a human. The pelvis is broader than a human’s slenderer pelvis, making the Neanderthal wider than us.
Human Proportions and Art
Throughout human existence, we have been creating art. Humans have experimented with self-expression and re-creation of the human form since we lived in caves. Handprints and hand outlines have been found in caves all over the world. The Cuevas de las Manos in Argentina is a cave filled with handprints from approximately 9000 years ago. They are assumed to be boy’s hands, perhaps for a rite of passage into adulthood, as the hands are too small to be that of grown men (16). These handprints are overlapping and in different colors, some with color inside, some with color outside the handprint. This was perhaps for the artistic touch, perhaps to show the different groups over time, or perhaps it was meant to be a group art project, we simply do not know.
From the Venus of Willendorf to the Venus de Milo the human form has been studied and recreated throughout history. The understanding of anatomy has always been a focus of art and science and is very beneficial for drawing and sculpting the human face and body. The Greeks were masters of sculpture and “the science of proportions was considered the key to beauty”. Greek sculptor Polyclitus devised a system of fixed ratios for the body that was used for several centuries. He also stated that beauty doesn’t exist in the “elements but in harmonious proportion of the parts, the proportion of one finger to the other, of all the fingers to the rest of the hand, of the rest of the hand to the wrist, of these to the forearm, of the forearm to the whole arm; of all parts to all others” (17). His studies were all about the visual proportions of the human body.
Leonardo da Vinci studied anatomy through human corpses to improve his understanding of the body in order to draw it more perfectly, focusing on musculature, bone structures, and tissues. Gunther von Hagens is a modern artist, scientist, and businessman who invented a plastination method for human tissue and created an entire exhibition of human bodies for the public to experience anatomy in all its glory. His pieces largely consist of human bodies (all donated to him by the original owner) without the skin and fat. Some bodies are put into artistic poses or the poses of athletes. Some point out specific features, some identify the vessels and veins, there is even a complete nervous system on display in his “Body Works” show (18). Suffice it to say, da Vinci would have likely enjoyed the show as an artist and a scientist.
John Gurche has worked with paleoanthropologists for decades; creating sketches and artworks, and telling the human story, going back twenty million years in the book Lost Anatomies: The Evolution of the Human Form (19). His work can also be found online. His images show the skeletons and skulls of apes, early hominins, Australopiths, the Archaic Homo, and the Derived Homo. Basically, drawings from chimp to modern human in an artistic form. His linework, textures, and creative representations are a great representation of anthropological art.
Measurements and Ratios of the Human Face
Humans are very proportionate. It is very easy to quickly show students how proportionate they are. Using the thumb and index finger to measure the eye width is typically the same as the width between the two eyes and also from the edge of the eye to the edge of the face/hairline. In a drawing, this space decreases by half, typically, due to the curvature of the head. That eye width is also generally the same from the inner corner of the eye to the top of the tip of the nose and the bottom of the nose to the space between the chin and bottom of the lip. The ears may vary due to age and earlobes, but it is typical for the ear length to equal the space between the bottom of the nose and bottom of the chin. The wingspan of a person is usually within a few inches of their height. The foot is likely to fit perfectly between the crook of the elbow and the wrist. These are generalities, of course, but they stand fairly true for most people. Artists and scientists can use certain features of the skull to identify gender, age, and ethnicity. This isn’t always possible, but certain features do assist in the judgements they make. Bone Clones is a website that sells reproductions of all kinds of bones and is an excellent source for looking at the different skulls (20). Note: Be forewarned that the website does have skulls of fetal babies and children up to the elderly. They have skulls representing murder and suicide (such as from gunshot wounds), people who had dwarfism, Down Syndrome, and more. They really do have everything, as their customers include doctors, scientists, dentists, teachers, etc.
Gender
Female skulls of the human species are generally smaller than the male. Bone Clones descriptions says, “Key features for sex assessment include size of mastoid process, robustness of brow ridge, shape of chin, angle of ramus, and shape and contour of forehead” (21). However, it is also said that the skull is not a very good indicator of gender.
Ethnicity
“Certain features of the skull may be informative in differentiating geographical ancestral groups for purposes of forensic investigation. Some key traits for the analysis of geographical ancestry include eye orbit shape, palate shape, maxillary incisor shape, nasal aperture shape, presence or absence of nasal spine, and shape of nasal sill” (22).
Age
Like gender and ethnicity, there are multiple features that help determine a relative guess at the age of death. Pre-pubescent skulls are perhaps the easiest to identify a close age because the skull is in a constant flux of growth from the first cells of the skull forming to the teenage years. Elderly skulls are more likely to have fewer teeth or worn-down teeth.
Proportions and Facial Features
According to the 3D Facial Approximation Lab Manuel and Dr. Robert George, “most artistic canons do not apply to many human faces” (23). However, using connecting points at the outer edges of the eyes to the center of the lower lip, just above the edge, is close to being an equilateral triangle. As well, from the other edges of the eyes to the opposite side corner of the mouth is an X with the intersection located at the base of the nasal septum.
“Nasal shape is largely determined by the cartilages, and nose projection can be estimated using an algorithm that includes the dimensions of the nasal aperture” (24). This sounds a bit complicated, perhaps, but can be estimated easily enough. The widest part of the nasal aperture, or the opening where the nose usually is, is roughly three-fifths the maximum width of the nostrils. So if you measure the width of the nasal opening at its widest point and multiply it by 5 and divide by 3, you will have the width of the nostrils. Then, going straight up from the outside of the nostrils is generally about where the insides of the eyes are. The height of the nasal wings, or nostrils, is determined by crista conchalis, or the bony curvature on the inside of the nasal cavity. The top and bottom parts of the nasal bones will help determine the direction of the nasal shaft and nasal tip, or the ridge of the nose and the tip of the nose. It is pretty easy to tell how wide the septum will be by looking at the base of the nasal spine, the long thin bone down the middle of the nose just inside the skull.
The corners of the mouth correspond with the medial edge of the iris and the mental foramen. The mental foramina are the two small holes below the teeth, near the chin on the skull. These holes are an exit for nerves and blood vessels that travel through the mouth from a hole towards the back of the jaw bone called the mandibular foramen (25). The thickness, or height of the lips, have a lot of variability based on ethnicity and size of the teeth.
The eye has to be considered as a ball that fits into the eye socket with the iris bulging slightly from the eyeball. Without the covering of eyelids and skin the eyeball sticks out slightly from the socket. The eyebrows and eyelids may or may not follow the orbital rim, that top edge of the eye socket. Factors such as age, ethnicity, and weight can greatly influence the eyebrows and eyelids.
What We Can’t Tell
Other things can not be perceived from the skull at all. Exact skin tone, the color of eyes, facial hair, and hair style. While body mass can be estimated from bone structure and strength, weight is a bit tougher to estimate due to muscle versus fat measurements. The skull, though of some use in this matter, is not as useful as the rest of the skeleton for estimating body mass. Therefore, there is some leeway in the reproduction of faces from skulls where fat tissue is concerned.
Teaching Strategies
Self-Evaluations: Self-evaluations are powerful tools for students to gain an understanding of their own work and how it is evaluated. Self-evaluations can be written reflections of the students’ own making, rubrics drawn up by the teacher, or even goal setting for improvement. My students will be using a single-point rubric for self-assessment. They will have criteria for evaluation such as “My art was developed from research, documented ideas, and exploration of materials” and “My artwork shows growth in use and application of the medium.”
Stop and Go: Stop and Go is a great way for a busy teacher to know who needs help on a project after work has begun. Often we run from table to table trying to help and students are waving hands, yelling out for help, or saying nothing even when they need help. With Stop and Go, students are individually, in pairs, or in small table groups, given a card with a red S on one side and a green G on the other. If they need help, they flip it to red, if they are good, green. This can be done in many ways, of course, this is but one easy option. “Stop and Go” not only allows students to continue working until the teacher arrives, but it stops the waving hands and yelling, and allows other students to see that assistance is needed and that they may be able to help their neighbor.
Two Roses and a Thorn: This strategy can be done as Two Roses and a Thorn or as Rose, Bud, Thorn. The rose represents things they like about their, or others, work. The bud is something that they hope for or look forward to in their work. The thorn is something they did not like as much, don’t understand, or could be improved (generally about their own work, but some groups can handle giving and receiving constructive criticism). This helps the student and the teacher understand what has worked and what hasn’t. While it is a form of self-evaluation, it can also be used as a form of peer evaluation and to evaluate the lesson itself.
Classroom Activities
Hands-on Skull Examinations: Students should view, handle, and sketch items (manipulatives) in class while learning about them as often as possible. Having examples for students to manipulate will help solidify comprehension and understanding of the parts of the skull and how they compare between the species. For this, I was lucky enough to get the schematics and someone to print out a skull from each of the species that will be focused on in the unit. Teachers who have access to a 3D printer could make the creation of a 3D-printed skull an activity of its own. At a minimum students should be able to access the American Museum of Natural History website to look at their “meet the relatives” examples and possibly handle a human skull facsimile found in many science classrooms (26). Talking about something and experiencing it are very different when learning. Remind students that the items are to be respected and revered, even as copies, as they were once living creatures. This activity should be done during the unit lesson about the three primates.
Still-life Set Up: A still-life can be set up by a teacher for students to draw from, however, a lesson on design can help students understand the purpose and thought process of a balanced, artful still-life and possibly more interest in what they are drawing. This lesson can also help them in future endeavors in drawing, painting, photography, and even home decor. Many helpful videos and websites are available online. Using stepped levels, draping, blocking, framing, rule of thirds, emphasis, etc. should be considered as the students design their still-life. Students can be put in small groups with a single skull in the middle of a table or the entire class can move around a central table with multiple skulls on view. Items available for the still life may include: boxes, pedestals, tissue paper, tinfoil, fabric, flowers, foliage, rocks and various items of the teachers and/or students choosing. Students will be asked to set up the still life they want to draw with the skull(s) as the feature piece. This activity will take approximately 45 minutes to an hour, depending on the depth of lesson needed/wanted on still-life design. For lower-level students, this could take several days as they learn the vocabulary, see examples in art, and practice with smaller set ups.
Skull Sketches with Warm-ups: Students will work on sketches of their still-life after its completion and approval. The class will move in a circle around the still-life, from seat to seat, between each sketch. The teacher will set a timer and ask students to move one seat (or more depending on the group or the seating arrangement) when each timed sketch is completed. Warm-up sketches are short, one-minute sketches. Doing 3-5 quick sketches gets students primed for longer sessions and allows them a better view of the still-life from all angles around the table. Seat movements should be efficient and quick, 30 seconds is recommended, so give students a heads-up on time. Though the seat movement may start rough, this method gets the blood pumping and students may even get a few laughs. The idea is for the students to work around the entire still-life and around to their original seats with quick drawings representing each angle. After completing the one-minute sketches, check in with students about the still-life to determine if anything needs to be adjusted before going on to longer sketch sessions. Moving on students will do two of each 3-minute and 5-minute sketches for another round of sketches from around the table. Finally, students will use the remainder of the class time to do one final sketch of the still-life. The remaining time should be dedicated to picking their focus and frame more carefully, working to get details, adding more shading, and working on textures. This activity will take 45 minutes to one hour.
Measuring Proportions with Body Parts: Have students compare the different parts of the body using fingers, hands, feet, etc. Measure the eyes with thumb and index finger, measure the distance between the eyes, from the corner of the eye to the end of the nose, and bottom of nose to the top of the chin. Ask them to spread their hands out and measure the forearm between the thumb and ring finger from the inner elbow to the wrist. Then they can use either of those to measure their foot without shoes some may need to do this at home…). Students can compare their wingspan to their height using a piece of unstretching string, paper, tape, etc. Yarn can be used as long as they aren’t stretching it, otherwise, results will be skewed. I placed a strip of tape horizontally and vertically and drew the measurement marks on top for height and wingspan. This activity is meant to show students how proportional we are and how proportional their artwork should be.
Final Assignment: The final assignment that my students will complete gives them a fair amount of freedom in expressing what they have learned. They will draw, paint, or sculpt an idea inspired by the unit. Students can focus on a skull to recreate the person or an image of a face to envision the skull inside, create a comparison of the species, or create a unique creative piece based on our studies. It is exciting to see what the students will come up with.
Appendix
Art (27)
VA.CP.3: Apply concepts, vocabulary, techniques, and skills to make creative choices and practice individual expression.
I.VA.CP.3.2: The student will apply creative thinking to artmaking: a) communicate emotions, ideas, experiences, and narratives through the creation of original works of art, using self-selected media; b) Synthesize prior knowledge and experience to develop a personal investigation by creating a series of works of art.
VA.CHP.1: Relate artistic ideas and works with societal, cultural, and historical context to deepen understanding.
Science (28)
8.LS4.1 Analyze and interpret data to identify patterns within the fossil record that document the existence, diversity, extinction, and change of life forms throughout the history of life on Earth.
8.LS4.2 Apply scientific ideas to construct an explanation for the patterns of anatomical similarities and differences among modern organisms and between modern and fossil organisms to infer ancestral relationships.
Notes
1 Hugo, Kristin. Human “Skulls Are Being Sold Online, But Is It Legal?” National Geographic. August 23, 2016. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/human[1]skulls-sale-legal-ebay-forensics-science2 Oklahschools.org. Accessed January 12, 2025.
2 Will Rogers College High School. National Center for Education. 2025. https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/school_detail.asp?Search=1&Zip=74120&Miles=20& DistrictType=1&DistrictType=2&DistrictType=3&DistrictType=4&DistrictType=5&DistrictTy pe=6&DistrictType=7&NumOfStudentsRange=more&NumOfSchoolsRange=more&SchoolPag eNum=3&ID=403024001679Access January 12, 2025.
3 All images from Pixabay.com. Accessed January 12, 2025.
4 Spencer Larsen, Clark. Our Origins. Textbook 278
5 “Meet the Relatives.” Nd. American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh. org/exhibitions/permanent/human-origins/meet-the-relatives. Accessed December 12, 2025.
6 Gurche, John. Lost Anatomies: The Evolution of the Human Form.
7 Spencer Larsen, Clark. Our Origins. Textbook 314
8 ibid 312
9 “Skull and Face Changes Define Modern Humans”. February 28, 2002. Cromie, William J. Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2002/02/skull-and-face-changes-define[1]modern-humans/. Accessed March 4, 2025.
10 Spencer Larsen, Clark. Our Origins. Textbook 317
11 ibid 320
12 https://pixabay.com/vectors/skull-human-head-cranium-diagram-41557/
13 https://www.istockphoto.com/en/vector/chimpanzee-skull-in-the-old-book-the-human-by-k[1]fogt-st-petersburg-gm1219531747-356759812
14 “DNA comparing humans and chimps”. Nd. https://www.amnh.org/ exhibitions/permanent/human-origins/understanding-our-past/dna-comparing-humans-and[1]Chimps. Accessed December 12, 2025.
15 “Ancient DNA and Neanderthals”. Nd. https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/genetics/ancient -dna-and[1]neanderthals#:~:text=If%20one%20was%20to%20look,our%20common%20ancestor%20with% 20Neanderthals. Accessed January 12, 2025
16 https://www.bradshawfoundation.com/south_america/cueva_de_los_manos/index.php
17 Flood, Jan. Facial Reconstruction for Artists. 79
18 https://bodyworlds.com/exhibitions/human/. Body Worlds. Accessed February 24, 2025.
19 Gurche, John. Lost Anatomies: The Evolution of the Human Form.
20 “Human Male and Female Skulls: African, Asian, and European.” n.d. Bone Clones. https://boneclones.com/product/human-male-and-Female-skulls-african-asian-and-european[1]COMP-120-SET. Accessed April 13, 2025.
21 ibid
22 ibid
23 Hayes, Susan. 3D Facial Approximation Lab Manual. 60
24 ibid 34
25 ibid 22
26 “Meet the Relatives.” Nd. American Museum of Natural History. https://www.amnh. org/exhibitions/permanent/human-origins/meet-the-relatives. Accessed December 12, 2024.
27 “Oklahoma Academic Standards: Fine Arts”. https://oklahoma.gov/content/dam /ok/en/osde/documents/services/standards-learning/fine-arts/OAS-FA.pdf. Accessed December 12, 2024
28 “Oklahoma Academic Standards: Science”. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qdJWH1 nGAyRYd3l3F6xCi7MFRxzHWj2q/view. Accessed December 12, 2024.