Francisco Antonio Martínez
Introduction
The educational landscape of America paints a stark picture: low-income schools, often
serving predominantly brown and black communities, navigate a sea of challenges that hinder
their students’ success. Imagine classrooms overflowing beyond capacity, textbooks outdated by
decades, and crumbling infrastructure barely holding steady. These are the daily realities for
many, where the pursuit of knowledge takes place amidst a constant battle for basic resources.
Limited funding starves these schools of qualified teachers, essential support staff, and the latest
educational tools. Overworked educators grapple with oversized classes, struggling to
personalize learning and offer the individual attention so crucial for disadvantaged students.
Outdated technology and inadequate learning materials further impede progress, leaving students
at a disadvantage compared to their peers in better-resourced schools.
Beyond the physical limitations, societal factors cast long shadows. Poverty’s grip can manifest
in hunger, homelessness, and unstable family structures, making it difficult for students to focus
on academics. Systemic biases and racial inequalities can fuel feelings of disenfranchisement and
hopelessness, further dampening motivation. Navigating these external pressures while juggling
academic demands takes a herculean effort, one that many students bear with extraordinary
resilience.
Despite these hardships, low-income, minority-majority schools brim with potential. Students,
fueled by an indomitable spirit and a deep desire for upward mobility, strive for excellence
against all odds. Teachers, driven by dedication and a fierce belief in their students’ capabilities,
go above and beyond, often relying on their own meager resources to fill the gaps. Communities,
recognizing the importance of education, rally around their schools, offering support and
mentorship in whatever ways they can.
The challenges faced by low-income, minority-majority high schools are undeniable, yet they are
not insurmountable. By recognizing the systemic inequities that perpetuate these hardships and
investing in resources, support systems, and community engagement, we can rewrite the
narrative. Equipping these schools with the tools they need is not just about providing a level
playing field; it’s about honoring the inherent potential within every student, regardless of their
background, and ensuring that the pursuit of knowledge remains a beacon of hope and
opportunity for all.
Unit Content
For low-income Latino students, the landscape of education can often feel like barren ground.
Socioeconomic challenges, cultural disconnects, and a curriculum that often overlooks their
heritage can leave them feeling unseen and unheard. Yet, within their own cultural tapestry lies a
fertile soil rich of history, resilience, and ancestral wisdom – the history of the Aztecs, Mexico,
and Mexican-Americans. Immersing these students in this knowledge is not just an academic
exercise; it is an act of empowerment, a vital tool for cultivating self-worth and navigating the
complex realities of their lives.
Rationale
Firstly, understanding the sophisticated civilization of the Aztecs provides a counter-narrative to
the dominant portrayal of pre-Columbian societies as primitive. Learning about their advanced
agricultural practices, complex calendar systems, and awe-inspiring architectural feats like
Tenochtitlan disrupts harmful stereotypes and instills a sense of pride in their heritage. It shows
them that their ancestors were not passive victims, but innovators, problem-solvers, and a
powerful force in shaping the world around them.
Secondly, delving into the history of Mexico itself unveils a tapestry of resilience woven from
centuries of struggle. Students learn about the conquest by Spain, the fight for independence, and
the ongoing quest for social justice. They see their own families mirrored in the stories of
farmworkers fighting for fair wages, students demanding educational equity, and artists
celebrating their unique cultural identity. This understanding of collective perseverance fosters a
sense of agency, reminding them that they are part of a long lineage of individuals who have
overcome adversity and continue to push for a better future.
Thirdly, studying the history of Mexican-Americans in the United States brings the lessons of the
past into the present. Students learn about the contributions of their communities to the nation’s
fabric, from laborers who built the railroads to artists who enriched its cultural landscape. They
also confront the harsh realities of discrimination, from the legacy of segregation to the ongoing
challenges of immigration. This knowledge equips them to understand and challenge the
systemic barriers they may face, fostering critical thinking skills and a sense of responsibility to
advocate for their own rights and those of their communities.
Learning about their ancestral roots is not simply about filling a gap in the curriculum; it is about
planting the seeds of self-worth, resilience, and agency in the hearts and minds of young Latino
students. It is about recognizing the strength and wisdom that lies dormant within them, waiting
to be nurtured and unleashed. By providing them with this knowledge, we empower them to
navigate the complexities of their identities, challenge stereotypes, and become the architects of
their own destinies. In the fertile soil of their ancestral history, they can find the nourishment to
rise above their circumstances and blossom into the leaders, innovators, and dreamers that they
were always meant to be.
Aztec Empire
Emerging from the mist of Mesoamerican legend, the Aztec Empire stands as a testament to
human ingenuity and ambition, yet also a stark reminder of the fleeting nature of power. From
their humble beginnings as wandering warriors to their reign as the undisputed masters of central
Mexico, the Aztecs carved a niche in history unlike any other (however, one would be remiss to
ignore other tribes such as the Maya, Olmec, and Inca). The Aztecs, or Mexica as they called
themselves, arrived in the Valley of Mexico around 1325. Initially ostracized, they found refuge
on a swampy island in Lake Texcoco, their tenacity a potent seed in harsh soil. Legend tells of
their war god guiding them to victory over their rivals, each triumph solidifying their resolve. By
the 15th century, under the cunning leadership of Moctezuma I, the Mexica had transformed
from swamp-dwellers to seasoned conquerors, forging alliances and crushing dissent.¹
The Aztec Empire thrived on a complex web of power and tribute. Conquered city-states paid
maize, precious stones, and feathers, fueling the opulence of Tenochtitlan, the imperial capital. A
marvel of engineering, Tenochtitlan boasted floating gardens, towering temples, and a bustling
marketplace, drawing awe and envy from all corners of the land.² Their intricate social hierarchy,
with the emperor at the pinnacle, governed every aspect of life, ensuring order and unwavering
loyalty. But beneath the glittering facade, the Aztec empire pulsed with a darker rhythm. Their
religious beliefs, deeply intertwined with the cycle of death and rebirth, demanded frequent
human sacrifices. Ritualistic bloodletting appeased the gods, securing cosmic balance, but it also
instilled fear and fueled resentment among subjugated peoples.³
The arrival of Hernan Cortes in 1519 shattered the illusion of Aztec invincibility. Aided by
Malinche, a Nahua translator, and by internal discontent amongst conquered tribes, Cortes
exploited Spanish weaponry and disease to wreak havoc. Despite Moctezuma II’s initial attempts
at diplomacy, the siege of Tenochtitlan proved a relentless storm, culminating in the empire’s
brutal demise in 1521.⁴ The legacy of the Aztecs, however, refuses to be buried. Their
architectural feats stand as silent sentinels to their ambition. Their calendar system tracks
astronomical cycles, speaks volumes of their intellectual prowess. Even their cuisine, featuring
ingredients like corn, beans, and chili peppers, continues to tantalize taste buds across the globe.⁵
Studying the Aztecs is not merely a journey through the past it is a lens through which we view
the complexities of human ambition, and the impermanence of empires.
History of Mexico
Mexico, a land where ancient murmurs mingle with modern roars, is a tapestry woven through
time. Its history is a vibrant kaleidoscope, shifting from the grandeur of the Aztec Empire to the
colonial clash with Spain, the revolutionary cries for independence, and the ongoing quest for a
national identity. Our journey begins amidst the towering pyramids and intricate codices of the
Aztecs. Their empire, a marvel of engineering and social organization, dazzled with its warrior
culture, polytheistic beliefs, and advancements in agriculture and astronomy. Yet, the echo of
sacrificial rituals and grumblings of internal conflict hint at the complexities of this powerful
civilization.
The arrival of the Spanish conquistadors in the 16th century marked a turning point. Hernán
Cortés, fueled by ambition and gunpowder, toppled the Aztec empire, ushering in three
centuries of Spanish rule. The clash of cultures was brutal, leaving behind a legacy of mestizaje,
a blending of indigenous and European blood that continues to shape the nation’s identity.⁶ The
mumblings of rebellion grew louder with each passing generation. Miguel Hidalgo, a priest with
a fiery spirit, ignited the flames of the Mexican War of Independence in 1810. His cry of “Viva
México!” echoed through the land, uniting diverse groups against the Spanish crown. The
struggle was long and bloody, but eventually, in 1821, Mexico emerged as a sovereign nation.⁷
However, the path to stability was riddled with challenges. The 19th century saw a dance of
presidents and dictators, each leaving their mark on the nation’s fragile democracy. The
Mexican-American War, fueled by territorial ambitions, carved scars on the land and psyche of
the nation. The 20th century brought a flicker of hope with the Mexican Revolution of 1910.
Emiliano Zapata’s agrarian cries and Pancho Villa’s audacious raids challenged the entrenched
elites and demanded social justice.⁸ Though the revolution yielded mixed results, it left an
indelible mark on the nation’s cultural landscape, with its echoes resonating in murals and
corridos. Today, Mexico stands at a crossroads. Its vibrant cities pulsate with modern energy,
while ancient ruins whisper forgotten stories.
History of Mexican-Americans in the United States
The tapestry of the American experience is woven with diverse threads, one vibrant strand being
the history of Mexican Americans. Their story, etched in resilience and cultural richness, unfolds
across centuries, leaving an indelible mark on the nation’s social, political, and cultural
landscape. From the early Spanish conquistadors forging alliances with indigenous communities,
to the influx of Mexican labor during the 19th century, the seeds of Mexican American identity
were sown in the fertile soil of the Southwest. These pioneers, driven by dreams of a better life,
carved out communities under the harsh desert sun, their traditions echoing in adobe architecture
and the rhythmic cadence of Spanish.
Yet, their path was not paved with gold. Discrimination, fueled by prejudice and
misunderstanding, reared its ugly head in the form of land grabs, segregation policies, and
xenophobic rhetoric. The Mexican American War and its aftermath dealt a heavy blow, stripping
many of their ancestral lands and leaving them marginalized citizens in their own homeland.⁹ But
the spirit of this community refused to be extinguished. The Mexican Revolution, a seismic event
south of the border, reverberated across the Rio Grande, sparking a wave of political activism
and cultural awareness. Labor unions rose to fight for fair wages and working conditions, while
artists and intellectuals gave voice to the struggles and triumphs of their people.
From farm fields to factories, Mexican Americans played a vital role in shaping the American
economic engine. Their sweat and toil fueled agricultural prosperity, built railroads, and laid the
foundations for modern cities. Yet, their contributions were often met with exploitation and
unfair treatment, their labor seen as expendable rather than vital. But amid the struggle, defiance
bloomed. The Chicano Movement of the 1960s and 1970s ignited a cultural and political
awakening.¹⁰ With cries of “El Grito” echoing through city streets, Mexican Americans embraced
their heritage, reclaimed their narrative, and demanded equal rights and representation.
Today, the tapestry of Mexican American identity is as diverse as ever, woven with threads of
tradition and innovation.¹¹ From the fight of Cesar Chavez for farmworker rights to Julie Chávez
Rodríguez’s ascent to the White House, they have shattered glass ceilings and left their footprints
on every facet of American life. Yet, the challenges remain. Issues of immigration, cultural
assimilation, and systemic inequities continue to cast shadows on the path forward. But the
indomitable spirit of the Mexican American community, forged in the fires of adversity, promises
to persevere. By understanding their past, we gain a deeper appreciation for the present and pave
the way for a more inclusive and equitable future for all.
Teaching Philosophy
Empowerment, that feeling of agency and self-belief, is a crucial ingredient for student success.
While learning itself can be empowering, great teachers play a vital role in fostering this feeling
within their students. This goes beyond simply sharing knowledge; it’s about cultivating a
mindset and skill set that allows students to confidently navigate their educational journey.
Effective teachers understand that confidence fosters exploration and risk-taking. They create a
safe and supportive environment where students feel comfortable making mistakes, asking
questions, and voicing their ideas. This fosters intellectual curiosity and a growth mindset,
allowing students to see challenges as opportunities to learn and improve.¹²
Through differentiated instruction and personalized learning, teachers equip students with the
skills and knowledge they need to tackle tasks successfully, further boosting their confidence and
sense of competence. Great teachers don’t simply dictate information; they involve students in
the learning process. This might involve collaborative projects, student-led discussions, or
opportunities for choice in learning activities. When students have a say in their learning, they
feel a sense of ownership over their education. This fosters intrinsic motivation and encourages
them to take initiative, set goals, and persevere through challenges. Recognizing and valuing
individual strengths and differences is key to empowerment.¹³
Effective teachers create inclusive classrooms where every student feels seen, heard, and
respected. They celebrate diverse perspectives and learning styles, allowing students to express
themselves authentically and contribute their unique talents to the learning community. This
fosters a sense of belonging and encourages students to believe in their own unique voice and
potential. Empowerment extends beyond academic achievement. Great teachers mentor their
students, supporting their emotional well-being and social-emotional learning. They encourage
self-reflection, help students develop coping mechanisms, and equip them with the skills to
navigate interpersonal relationships and resolve conflicts constructively. This empowers students
to believe in their ability to overcome challenges and thrive, not just in the classroom, but in
life.¹⁴
Teaching Strategies
Project-based Learning
High school project-based learning transcends rote memorization and lecture halls, offering
students a dynamic platform to develop crucial skills necessary for navigating the complexities
of our ever-evolving world. By immersing students in real-world problems and challenges,
project-based learning empowers them to become active participants in their learning, fostering
intrinsic motivation and igniting a passion for knowledge.¹⁵ This immersive approach transcends
traditional disciplinary boundaries, encouraging collaboration, critical thinking, and creative
problem-solving as students grapple with authentic scenarios.
As they research, analyze, and synthesize information, students not only acquire subject-specific
knowledge but also develop communication skills by presenting their findings to diverse
audiences. Project-based learning fosters teamwork and adaptability as students negotiate group
dynamics and learn to adjust their strategies based on feedback and unexpected setbacks. This
collaborative environment mirrors the realities of professional life, preparing students for future
careers that demand resilience, empathy, and effective communication.¹⁶ Furthermore,
project-based learning allows students to connect their learning to their communities, sparking
civic engagement and a sense of purpose. By tackling issues relevant to their surroundings,
students develop a deeper understanding of social and environmental problems, empowering
them to become responsible citizens who actively contribute to positive change.
The effectiveness of project-based learning is underscored by research demonstrating its positive
impact on student achievement, engagement, and critical thinking skills. By transitioning from
passive receivers to active knowledge constructors, students cultivate a lifelong love of learning,
preparing them not only for college entrance exams but also for the dynamic challenges and
opportunities that lie ahead.¹⁷ In conclusion, project-based learning is not just an educational
approach but a transformative experience, equipping high school students with the essential
skills and mindsets necessary to thrive in a world that demands innovative thinkers, collaborative
problem-solvers, and responsible citizens.
Socratic Seminar
High school students participating in Socratic seminars can reap a multitude of benefits, both
academically and personally. These discussions, where students grapple with complex texts and
ideas through open-ended questions and respectful dialogue, are crucial for fostering critical
thinking, communication, and collaboration skills. Unlike passive lectures, Socratic seminars
place students at the center of the learning process, requiring them to analyze evidence, construct
arguments, and defend their positions. This active engagement deepens their understanding of
the subject matter, moving beyond memorization to genuine intellectual exploration.¹⁸
Additionally, Socratic seminars hone communication skills as students learn to articulate their
thoughts clearly, listen attentively to others, and engage in respectful debate. They practice
formulating questions, challenging assumptions, and offering constructive feedback, all essential
tools for academic success and navigating the complexities of the world. Moreover, these
discussions foster a sense of community and collaboration. Students learn to value diverse
perspectives, appreciate the give-and-take of intellectual exchange, and work together to arrive at
a deeper understanding. This collaborative spirit transcends the classroom, preparing students for
effective teamwork and leadership in future endeavors.¹⁹
The effectiveness of Socratic seminars is evident in studies that show improved critical thinking,
communication, and collaboration skills among students who participate regularly. However, it’s
crucial to remember that effective implementation requires careful planning and facilitation.
Clear expectations, a supportive learning environment, and skilled guidance from teachers are
essential for maximizing the benefits of these discussions. In conclusion, Socratic seminars offer
a powerful tool for high school students to develop essential skills for academic success,
personal growth, and responsible citizenship. By engaging in these dynamic dialogues, students
embark on a journey of intellectual exploration, fostering critical thinking, communication, and
collaboration that will serve them well throughout their lives.²⁰
Reflection
Writing reflections on project-based learning assignments are crucial components of true
education which elevates the entire learning experience for high school students. Through
introspection, students dissect their journey through the project, analyzing not just the “what”
they learned, but the “how” and the “why.” This introspective process unlocks a treasure trove of
benefits. Firstly, reflection deepens understanding. As students articulate their thought processes,
they solidify their grasp of complex concepts by connecting them to personal experiences and
prior knowledge. This internal dialogue helps them weave new information into the tapestry of
their existing understanding, creating a richer and more nuanced mental model.²¹
Secondly, reflection fosters metacognition, the ability to think about one’s own thinking. By
questioning their strategies, evaluating their successes and failures, and identifying areas for
improvement, students develop a critical awareness of their learning journey. This newfound
self-awareness equips them to become more adaptable learners, able to navigate future
challenges with greater autonomy and confidence. Furthermore, reflection cultivates
self-efficacy. As students witness their own progress through the lens of reflection, they build a
sense of accomplishment and competence. This boost in confidence empowers them to tackle
future project-based learning tasks with greater enthusiasm and a willingness to embrace
challenges.²²
Finally, reflection provides educators with invaluable insights. By analyzing student reflections,
teachers gain a deeper understanding of individual learning styles, strengths, and areas needing
support. This feedback loop allows for targeted interventions and differentiated instruction,
ensuring that each student’s learning experience is tailored to their unique needs. In conclusion,
writing reflections on project-based learning assignments is not just an academic exercise; it’s a
transformative process that empowers students to become self-aware, adaptable, and confident
learners. By harnessing the power of introspection, project-based learning becomes not just a
means to acquire knowledge, but a springboard for personal and intellectual growth.²³
Peer Feedback
High school students providing feedback to peers on project-based learning assignments is not
just a box to tick on a rubric, but a potent catalyst for growth on multiple levels. This peer
feedback loop fosters not only the refinement of individual projects, but also the development of
crucial critical thinking, communication, and self-assessment skills. As students analyze and
critique their peers’ work, they are forced to articulate their own understanding of the project’s
objectives and criteria. This process deepens their own internal grasp of the material, as they
identify strengths and weaknesses in others’ approaches, prompting them to revisit and revise
their own strategies. Additionally, the act of providing constructive criticism hones their
communication skills, as they learn to balance specificity and tact, offering actionable
suggestions while maintaining a respectful and encouraging tone.²⁴
This exchange of ideas builds a collaborative learning environment where diverse perspectives
are brought to bear on the problem at hand, leading to more innovative and well-rounded
solutions. Furthermore, receiving peer feedback provides students with a valuable external
perspective on their work, allowing them to identify blind spots and areas for improvement that
might otherwise go unnoticed. This self-reflection, informed by the insights of their peers,
empowers them to take ownership of their learning and become more independent and adaptable
learners. In conclusion, the integration of peer feedback into project-based learning is not merely
an add-on, but a transformative experience that fosters deeper understanding, hones essential
skills, and cultivates a collaborative learning culture, ultimately preparing students for the
challenges and opportunities that lie beyond the classroom walls.²⁵
Reading Aloud
Reading aloud in high school classrooms offers a surprising wealth of benefits, extending far
beyond mere pronunciation practice. This seemingly simple act can be a powerful tool for
boosting student engagement, comprehension, and even confidence. Firstly, vocalization
strengthens understanding. By hearing and saying words aloud, students actively engage with the
text, solidifying their grasp of vocabulary, sentence structure, and overall meaning. This is
particularly helpful for auditory learners who process information more effectively through
sound. Secondly, reading aloud fosters critical thinking. The act of voicing words encourages
students to pause, reflect, and question the text. This can lead to deeper discussions, analysis of
literary devices, and a more nuanced understanding of the author’s intent.²⁶
Thirdly, reading aloud builds confidence and fluency. Overcoming the initial hurdle of public
speaking can be empowering, especially for students who struggle with reading anxiety. Regular
practice improves pronunciation, intonation, and overall delivery, enhancing communication
skills and public speaking confidence. Finally, reading aloud fosters collaboration and
community. Sharing narratives and poems aloud creates a shared experience, encouraging active
listening, respect, and empathy. It can also be a fun and engaging way to break up the monotony
of traditional classroom activities. While not every reading session needs to be a theatrical
performance, incorporating regular opportunities for students to read aloud can significantly
enhance their learning experience and overall development.²⁷
Classroom Activities
In high school social studies, where we explore the complexities of human societies and
historical events, interdisciplinary learning is crucial. By connecting social studies with subjects
like literature, math, and science, students gain a richer understanding. Imagine analyzing a
social justice movement through the lens of a literary text exploring empathy, or using statistics
to analyze voting patterns. This approach fosters critical thinking, as students see issues from
various perspectives and make connections between seemingly separate disciplines. Ultimately,
interdisciplinary social studies equips students to become well-rounded thinkers who can grapple
with the real world’s interconnected challenges.²⁸ For this reason, students will create a writing
piece (flash fiction), an art piece (a painting), and an artifact (a craft). Students will produce one
of each but only one per historical era. An example of the final product would be a story about an
Aztec merchant, a painting of Pancho Villa, and a protest poster of the Farm Workers Movement.
Writing
In a social studies classroom, incorporating flash fiction writing can be a powerful tool to
solidify historical concepts and spark student engagement. The short, focused nature of flash
fiction pushes students to identify the most crucial elements of a historical event, era, or figure.
By compressing their understanding into a concise narrative, students hone their ability to
analyze and synthesize information. Additionally, flash fiction allows students to explore
historical events from unique perspectives.²⁹ They can step into the shoes of everyday people
during a revolution, imagine a fictional dialogue between historical figures, or craft a news report
from a specific point in history. This creative exercise fosters empathy and a deeper
understanding of the human element within historical narratives. Finally, the brevity of flash
fiction makes it less intimidating for reluctant writers, encouraging participation and offering a
sense of accomplishment upon finishing a complete story. This can build confidence in their
writing abilities and foster a love for creative expression within the social studies curriculum.
Incorporating painting into high school social studies offers a surprising range of benefits. It goes
beyond simply creating a pretty picture. The act of painting historical events or cultural artifacts
forces students to engage with the material in a new way. They must analyze details, consider
perspectives, and grapple with the emotions and symbolism embedded within the subject. This
deeper processing fosters a stronger understanding of the historical period or cultural concept.
Furthermore, painting is a unique outlet for students who may not excel at traditional written
assignments. It allows them to express their understanding and interpretation in a creative and
personal way, boosting confidence and engagement. This artistic exploration can also spark
critical thinking and empathy. By considering how an artist from a different time or culture
approached their work, students develop a broader perspective and a deeper appreciation for the
complexities of social studies topics.³⁰
High school social studies often relies on textbooks and lectures, but kinesthetic learning through
crafts can significantly enhance the learning experience for many students. This hands-on
approach allows them to process information in a new way. By building models of historical
landmarks, creating timelines with movable parts, or designing clothing representative of
different cultures, students engage with the material in a physical way. This deepens their
understanding of concepts, improves their ability to visualize the past, and strengthens memory
retention. The crafting process itself fosters critical thinking and problem-solving skills as
students grapple with the logistics of their creations.³¹ In essence, kinesthetic learning through
crafts transforms social studies from passive memorization to an active, engaging exploration of
the past and its lasting impact.
Appendix
United States Government 1.1 – Compare the essential characteristics of limited versus unlimited
governments. Students will need to understand the difference between the two approaches to properly compare
and contrast the government of the fallen Aztec Empire and the growing country of México.
United States Government 1.2 – Compare historic and contemporary examples of unlimited
governments to examples of limited systems. The type of government utilized by the Aztec Empire provides an example of unlimited
government which juxtaposes the limited government of México.
United States Government 1.3 – Compare the advantages and disadvantages of the ways
governmental power is distributed, shared and structured in unitary, federal, and confederal
systems in terms of effectiveness, prevention of abuse of power and responsiveness to the
popular will. To highlight the strengths and weaknesses of federal government, México will serve as the case
study.
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Notes
1 Maffie, James. Aztec Philosophy: Understanding a World in Motion, 2.
2 Rojas, José Luis de, Michael Ernest Smith, Marilyn A. Masson, John Wayne Janusek, and
ProQuest (Firm). Tenochtitlan: Capital of the Aztec Empire, 68.
3 Ibid., 17.
4 Yasuda, Anita and Casteel Tom. Ancient Civilizations: Aztecs, Maya, Incas!, vii.
5 Maffie, James, 95.
6 Hamnett, Brian R. and ProQuest (Firm). A Concise History of Mexico, 95.
7 Ibid., 112.
8 Russell, Philip L. and ProQuest (Firm). The History of Mexico: From Pre-Conquest to Present,
298.
9 Ibid., 581.
10 Ybarra, Lea and ProQuest (Firm). Vietnam Veteranos: Chicanos Recall the War, 304.
11 Marquez, Benjamin and ProQuest (Firm). Constructing Identities in Mexican-American
Political Organizations: Choosing Issues, Taking Sides, 5.
12 Nottingham, James and Bosse Larsson. Challenging Mindset: Why a Growth Mindset Makes
a Difference in Learning-and what to do when it Doesn’t., 4.
13 Houser, Marian L. and Ann Bainbridge Frymier. “The Role of Student Characteristics and
Teacher Behaviors in Students’ Learner Empowerment.”, 36.
14 Ibid., 47.
15 Pan, Ai-Jou, Chin-Feng Lai, and Hsu-Chan Kuo. “Investigating the Impact of a
Possibility-Thinking Integrated Project-Based Learning History Course on High School Students’
Creativity, Learning Motivation, and History Knowledge.”, 4.
16 Ibid., 4.
17 Ibid., 4.
18 Walsh-Moorman, Beth. “The Socratic Seminar in the Age of the Common Core: A Search for
Text-Dependent Discourse.”, 1.
19 Ibid., 2.
20 Ibid., 2.
21 Burke, Margaret R. “The Importance of Reflection & Assessment.”, 317.
22 Ibid., 317.
23 Ibid., 318.
24 Ryan, Tracii and Michael Henderson. “Feeling Feedback: Students’ Emotional Responses to
Educator Feedback.”, 880.
25 Ibid., 889.
26 Heubeck, Elizabeth. “Reading Aloud to Students Shouldn’t Get Lost in Shift to ‘Science of
Reading,’ Teachers Say; Why Reading Aloud to Students is a Critical Tool for Developing
Literacy and a Love for Reading.”, 1.
27 Ibid., 1.
28 van Goch, Merel. “Scholarly Learning of Teacher-Scholars Engaging in Interdisciplinary
Education.”, 68.
29 Batchelor, Katherine E. and April King. “Freshmen and Five Hundred Words:
INVESTIGATING FLASH FICTION AS A GENRE FOR HIGH SCHOOL WRITING.”, 112.
30 Cait, Cheryl-Anne, Ravi Gokani, Anita Rachel Ewan, Festus Moasun, Azi Razbani-Tehrani,
Jennifer Scarborough, Stewart Smith, and James Woodstock. “Epistemology and Arts-Based
Pedagogy: Pictures from a Doctoral Classroom.”, 107.
31 Pinzon, David, Roberto Vega, Yerly Paola Sanchez, and Bin Zheng. “Skill Learning from
Kinesthetic Feedback.”, 721.