Fredrick Jones
Introduction and Rationale
Topic: A comparison of Tokamak and Laser confinement methods as potential solutions to technological challenges in establishing Nuclear Fusion as a sustainable energy source.
Topic selection: In the study of higher-level physics, many students struggle with making a meaningful connection to the significance of concepts that are not visible on macroscales. Modern students deserve meaningful learning experiences that deepen their connection to the modern challenges of nuclear fusion as a sustainable energy source. In alignment with the International Baccalaureate (IB) Physics course themes of nuclear physics, electromagnetic fields, and thermodynamics, students will deepen their understanding of the energy stored in the nucleus of the atom and societal efforts to solve the energy crisis. Our investigation focuses on the intersection of energy, heat engines, turbines, greenhouse effects, and the atomic nature of matter. A sufficient background understanding of kinematics, dynamics, and energy will have already been established before commencing this study.
Topic of interest to students: Students generally excel when faced with real-world context for projects. This unit explores some of the most significant problems in modern physics and the implications of the largest construction project ever attempted by humanity: the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER). Completing activities and assignments alongside the IB Physics framework will help any student class be well-prepared for the challenge of understanding crosscutting concepts such as energy and sustainability.
This unit will spark the unique interests of my students because of the multiple connections to the IBHL Physics curriculum. Students will have already studied Electromagnetism, Waves, Energy, Thermodynamics, Kinematics, and Dynamics leading up to this penultimate unit—Nuclear and Quantum Physics. We will include a historical overview of Nobel Prize winners in Physics between 1921 to the present day. In my experience, students readily connect to the storytelling aspect of historical context. Within the framework of the IB curriculum, students will apply their Theory of Knowledge course practices by presenting the contributions of key scientists such as Einstein, Bohr, Milliken, and Higgs.
Demographics
I teach at an academic-focused magnet school in Tulsa, OK. This curriculum unit is designed for IB Physics students. The International Baccalaureate (IB) curriculum for Higher Level (HL) Physics includes 240 instructional hours over 2 years. Students are required to complete an Internal Assessment (IA) which reports on an independent student-designed experiment. In their junior year, Advanced Placement (AP) Physics 1 becomes an option for STEM-focused students enrolled in the IB Diploma Program (DP). For many students, AP Physics 1 is their first and only physics course, but students in the IB DP select 3 to 4 HL courses for their deep focus in their senior year. An elite subset of the senior class carries their study of physics into the second year of the IBHL course. AP Physics 1 accounts for about 120 instructional hours of IBHL content with topics focused on kinematics, dynamics, momentum, energy, simple harmonic motion, and fluids. The IBHL course accounts for the remaining 120 instructional hours and includes topics focused on thermal physics, thermodynamics, circuits, electromagnetism, waves, nuclear, and quantum physics.
The student population at my school is quite diverse, both economically and culturally. Specifically, at Booker T. Washington High School, our current student body has 1,296 students who are 30.3% White, 28.7% Black, 24.5% Hispanic, 3.1% Asian, 3.4% American Indian, and 10% Multiracial. 54% of the student body is on free and reduced lunch. The faculty and staff include about 60 full-time teachers who reflect a similar diversity within the Tulsa community. Our school is deep in tradition, academically focused, and culturally diverse.[1]
Unit Content
The logical subsections of this unit include the structure of the atom, quantum physics, radioactive decay, fission, and fusion & stars. Scaffolding of these content areas is best achieved through adherence to a well-structured lesson plan. The following guiding questions serve as prompts for student learning and guidance within each subsection.
Guiding questions [2]
E.1 Structure of the atom
What is the current understanding of the nature of an atom?
Our current models of atomic structure include a dense nucleus made of protons and neutrons, surrounded by a cloud of charged electrons. The spherical uniform sphere theorized by Dalton has evolved considerably over the last 200 years. We now see a deeper complexity within the nuclear density of 1017 kg/m3 where the protons and neutrons are found.[3] The major contributions to our current understanding came from the following experiments and discoveries.
Dalton’s Model – the atom is a finitely small spherical particle that defines the characteristics of an element. Atoms comprise elements with different masses. This represented an expanded representation of the Greek atomists’ theory of matter.
Thomson’s Model – through experimentation with cathode ray tubes, Thomson was able to determine the mass-to-charge ratio of an electron. Through his application of electric and magnetic fields, Thomson established the fundamentals of electrostatics. Positive charges are attracted to negative charges, and vice versa. While positive charges are repelled by their like counterparts, as are the negative charges. With a focus on charges transferring as “particles,” Thomson recognized the separation of electrons as negatively charged and low mass resulting in the “plum-pudding” model of the atom.[4]
Rutherford’s Model – by application of alpha particles through a leaf of gold foil, Rutherford was able to determine the positive charge and high density of the nucleus. Thus modifying the model to include yet another layer of complexity. The “alpha” particles in question are high energy enough to travel through thin metals, and the beam was concentrated at roughly 1000 atoms thick gold foil leaf with a zinc sulfide detection screen surrounding the leaf and apparatus. The majority of alpha particles were able to pass right through the foil, but periodic deflections were soon noticed. Upon leaving the process to run for some period of time, the alpha particles were found to have rebounded from the positive charges coming into close proximity to the nucleus which Rutherford concluded must be both highly dense and positively charged.[5]
What is the role of evidence in the development of models of the atom?
The primary evidence used by Rutherford, Thomson, and Dalton was empirical evidence collected over a series of well-designed experiments with community review and scrutiny. The application of new technologies gave each of these scientists an advantage over previous generations. Our current generation has some amazing tools at our disposal. The evidence now gathered by the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN has delved into the very heart of the proton and confirmed the existence of a whole array of subatomic particles and interactions that influence an atom’s properties. Considering the relative energy density of the nucleus and the consistent interaction of charge and electron transfer within a circuit, we have command over the electron’s ability to store, transfer, and conduct energy. This is considered by many to be a characteristic of a technologically advanced society.
In what ways are previous models of the atom still valid despite recent advances in understanding?
Advances in understanding have moved the model of the atom to adopt a quantum mechanical arrangement for electrons as they have a high probability of being in discrete energy states. Bohr’s model shows a positive nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons. This model was effective at describing the experimental results of the day. Neils Bohr won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1922. His work was the basis for understanding nuclear reactions and advanced research that resulted in the Manhattan Project. Subsequent work by Robert Hofstadter, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961, connected our understanding of the atomic nucleus to the elementary particles known as quarks and a more complete explanation of how the strong nuclear force cements the protons and neutrons in the nucleus.[6] The discoveries of Bohr and his predecessors were essential for Hofstadter’s groundbreaking work decades later. Indeed, when we consider the relationship between previous models of the atom and advances in our current understanding the words of Sir Isaac Newton himself capture it best: “If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.”
E.3 Radioactive Decay
Why are some isotopes more stable than others?
Isotope stability is dependent on the balance of subatomic particles’ arrangement, mass, charge, and interactions. Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. While protons bring mass (1 amu) and charge (+1) to the nucleus, the nucleus brings only mass. The instability of an isotope is determined by the weak nuclear force and its interaction with the quarks that make up both protons and neutrons. Protons are composed of 2 up quarks and 1 down quark. Neutrons are composed of 2 down quarks and one up quark. For a helium nucleus, the balance of 2 protons and 2 neutrons results in a total of 6 up quarks and 6 down quarks that are balanced with respect to a property known as “isospin”. The most important factor in considering the relative stability of a given isotope is the ratio of neutrons to protons.[7]
In what ways can a nucleus undergo change?
Nuclear changes take place during radioactive decay. The 3 main types of decay include: alpha decay, beta decay, and gamma emission. Alpha decay involves the emission of 2 protons and 2 neutrons bound together, essentially representing a Helium nucleus. Beta decay includes three variations: negative beta decay, positive beta decay, and electron capture. Negative beta decay involves the conversion of a neutron into a proton and its electron. Positive beta decay involves the conversion of a proton into a neutron and a positron (anti-electron). Thirdly, the electron capture variation involves an inner shell electron being captured by the nucleus and converting it into a neutron via its interaction with a proton. All three variations occur due to the imbalance in neutron and proton ratios common to elemental isotopes. Gamma decay involves the emission of a high-energy gamma particle due to the excited energy state of the nucleus.[8]
How do large, unstable nuclei become more stable?
As matter becomes more complex in the march along the periodic table, eventually the mass of the nucleus tends toward radioactivity. A byproduct of the excessive particles in the nucleus, and the inherent limitations of the strong nuclear force’s ability to withstand collisions. The entire Actinide series along the bottom of the periodic table includes radioactive elements that randomly decay due to their excessive mass. Uranium ore found in the earth’s crust produces alpha particles at a low, but measurable rate. Studying the decay patterns of heavy elements along with the advent of particle accelerators, has resulted in the creation of many man-made elements with half-lives in the small fractions of a second. Ultimately, the process of radioactive decay allows large nuclei to regain more stability.[9]
How can the random nature of radioactive decay allow for predictions to be made?
Although based on probabilities, elements are found to undergo radioactive decay at statistically predictable rates based on their measured half-lives. The half-life of a given element is the amount of time it takes for fifty percent of the radioactive (parent) material to emit alpha particles and become new stable (daughter) material. After undergoing a series of two half-lives, twenty-five percent of the original material would be parent material, whereas the remaining seventy-five percent would have decayed into daughter material. One significant example of the use of radiometric dating is the use of carbon-14 to determine the age of artifacts aged 50,000 years or younger. After about 8 half-lives the amount of parent material is nearly all gone. With a half-life of 5,730 years, carbon-14 would decay to less than one percent parent material and over ninety-nine percent daughter material. By approximating age by determining the ratio of parent material to daughter material, we are able to know the ages of our oldest land formations and even the solar system itself when these same radiometric techniques are applied to isotopes of Uranium-238 which has a half-life of 4.5 billion years.[10]
E.5 Fusion and Stars
How are elements created?
Stellar nucleosynthesis as described by the work of Nobel Laureate Hans Bethe in 1967, is the process whereby atomic nuclei, under intense heat and pressure, are combined into more massive building blocks of matter.[11] The formation of the elements along the periodic table from helium to iron takes place through the process of nuclear fusion at the core of stars. Heavier elements like gold and platinum are formed during the supernova of the largest stars. On the other side of the mass density side of the periodic table is Hydrogen and it was generally formed out of the condensation of matter from energy in the first second after the big bang. The first protons in existence were accompanied by an equivalent amount of antimatter which, in equal proportions, will annihilate. Something to this effect may have preceded the universe we see today. The current asymmetry of matter to anti-matter is a loose thread in the tapestry of the standard model.[12]
What physical processes lead to the evolution of stars?
Stars evolve based on their mass and energy systems. Our sun is fueled by the hydrostatic balance between gravity and fusion. An inward gravitational pull is proportional to the amount of hydrogen which adds up to a mass of 1.98 x 1030 kg. The outward pressure balancing this is the ten million Kelvin furnace at its core. The conversion of hydrogen to helium and the mass defect converted to heat energy sustains the nuclear fusion reactor at the core of our sun. As the fuel source diminishes, pressure builds on a helium ash core within a shell of hydrogen. Once the temperature at the core reaches 100 million Kelvin, the Helium ash ignites and the fuel source loses efficiency. The key processes that determine the rate of evolution are pressure, temperature, and, toward the end of the star’s life, electron degeneracy pressure.[13]
Electron degeneracy pressure creates a support force for stellar nuclei which sometimes fall out of hydrostatic equilibrium as they go from burning one type of elemental fuel to another. The remaining core of a star’s fusion processor becomes a white dwarf after the outer envelope of hydrogen and helium is blown off during a supernova. The driving force holding the white dwarf together is the electron degeneracy pressure which results from the quantum mechanical response of pushing electrons so close together that they create an outward pressure. In conjunction with the Pauli exclusion principle, the arrangement of electrons is limited to distinct quantum states.[14]
Can observations of the present state of the universe predict the future outcome of the universe?
Primary evidence on light behaviors in the physics laboratory includes an experiment on spectroscopy and Kirchoff’s Laws of atomic spectra. Extending resources to include data collected from the Hubble Space Telescope and James Webb Space telescopes, students have ready access to observations involving cosmic microwave background radiation (CMB), the expansion rate of the universe, and cosmological constant as determined by the matter density of the vacuum of space. The balance of atomic nuclei and the density of the vacuum of space are both governed by the 2nd law of thermodynamics which predicts that all natural systems tend toward disorder. While the atomic structure is highly organized, the energy to create this structure appears to be the exception and not the norm. The norm for our universe is the 3 K background radiation that permeates all space. The tendency of natural systems to increase disorder is known as entropy and is a consequence of the law of conservation of energy.[15]
What are the challenges that prevent scientists from making miniature stars here on Earth?
In order to engineer miniature stars and harness the power of nuclear fusion here on Earth, we will need to overcome the challenges of (1) extreme temperatures and pressures, (2) containment[16], (3) input energy versus stability of output energy[17], and (4) predicting the stability of high energy plasma during complex subatomic interactions.[18]
What approaches are scientists exploring to overcome these challenges?
Overcoming the challenges of extreme temperatures and pressures is being addressed through magnetic confinement and inertial confinement. Magnetic confinement involves the use of strong magnetic fields to control the plasma in a toroidal-shaped apparatus called a “tokamak”. Inertial confinement is achieved by focusing high-energy laser beams onto fuel pellets of deuterium and tritium (heavy isotopes of hydrogen).[19]
Additional concepts for consideration in student-led research assignments include:
- Contrasting monochromatic light and magnetic fields as methods of containment during the fusion process
- Magnetic field confinement as a viable process for sustaining fusion
- Tokamak is a device that uses the magnetic confinement of plasma to sustain fusion[20]
- Lawson Criterion is the product of particle density and confinement time to maintain sufficient heat and pressure for the output energy to be greater than the heat input
- Inertial confinement as a viable process for sustaining fusion
- International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is the test facility for the largest magnetic tokamak reactor[21]
Teaching Strategies
The IBHL Physics students embrace the philosophy of the DP as internationally minded, critical thinking, and conceptual learners. Understanding the overarching philosophy of the IB DP program begins with a unique perspective on the Theory of Knowledge (TOK), Approaches to Learning (ATL), and the Nature of Science (NOS). TOK is an independent course that delves into the metacognition of student learning. All IBDP students are required to take TOK and reflect on their critical thinking skills. The essential relationship between teacher and student is embodied by the IB’s aims in outlining Approaches to teaching which delineates the strategies, skills, and mindsets that define the learning environment. Generally, teaching and learning in the DP is outlined by 5 ATLs and 6 Approaches to Teaching (ATT). The 5 ATLs include thinking skills, social skills, communication skills, self-management skills, and research skills for each student. The 6 ATTs include teaching that is inquiry-based, conceptually focused, contextualized, collaborative, differentiated, and informed by assessment. The Nature of Science (NOS) serves to connect the studies of biology, chemistry, and physics in their exploration of scientific content knowledge as conceptual understandings with clear purpose and relevant connections between scientific knowledge and social impact.[22]
Overview
Early – introduce concepts through direct instruction, including class notes, video assignments, and example problems worked on in class.
Middle – practice problem-solving strategies with lab teams and teacher support, complete data collection and analysis using appropriate laboratory equipment and experimental procedures.
Late – Complete formal assessments with minimal support from the teacher and no input from peers and reflect on the knowledge gained during the revision process. Provide opportunities for student-led research, which will focus on extending learning to include applications of modern nuclear physics.
Suitability of Strategies
This style of instruction is well-suited to the physics lab, as small groups are already established as lab teams for each semester. The use of small groups for experiments and problem-solving lends itself to the collaborative nature of STEM fields. The focus for successful small group collaboration is on clear and focused instruction, active engagement during discussions, and confidence that previously developed skills are both recognized and valued by the team.
Specific Strategies
Initially, the exploration of the Nobel Prize in Physics winners who made key discoveries contributing to successes in sustainable nuclear fusion. This can serve as a historical connection and an easy jumping-off point for more quantitative and deeper analysis. Beginning with the historical progression of atomic models and culminating in student-led research of historical figures between 1921 to present day, a historical timeline of scientific discoveries will be established as students lead the class through personal narratives and in-class presentations. These will highlight the physics discoveries and the people who made them.
Secondly, the students will conduct observational research using hydrogen spectra and localized magnetic fields. Using external magnetic fields to interact with the observed spectra during a spectroscopy lab, students will be prompted to discuss, in their written analysis, the significance of radiation interacting with matter. Prompting students to consider the role of magnetic fields interacting with plasma and their respective spectral lines. The discrete nature of atomic energy levels is a visual phenomenon that most students will appreciate.
Two quantitative homework assignments to practice the analysis of nuclear equations, radioactive decay equations, mass defect, and binding energy.
In order to establish a baseline for student learning related to atomic, nuclear, and quantum physics, we need to use both qualitative and quantitative data. In order to draw some qualitative conclusions about students’ preconceived ideas related to atomic structure, observe as they complete the online simulation and move from group to group asking and answering questions as needed. Students generally express confidence in the big picture concepts and solve easy problems via in-table collaboration. Some students engage in collaborative conversations when faced with intermediate questions, whereas others need additional support from the teacher. From a quantitative standpoint, students complete the simulation for full credit as they are graded on completion and participation in the assignment. The secondary phase of activities acts as a bridge to more quantitative data.
In the opening phase of the lesson, students will complete an online simulation, small group presentations, practice problems from “Cambridge Go”, and unit assessments from the IB question bank. Students complete the formative assessment (atomic reactions simulation) independently. Following the introduction of concepts and completion of the simulation, students will work in small groups to select a nuclear equation-based free-response style question to present to the class. Small groups of 3-4 students are determined based on pre-existing lab teams which are established each quarter based on students’ strengths and opportunities. Students complete the summative assessment individually with the support of calculators, equations sheets (IB Data Booklet), and scratch paper.
In order to appeal to multiple learning styles students are prompted to engage in learning activities that require verbal, logical, auditory, visual, social, spatial, and kinesthetic intelligences. Student-led presentations of Nobel prize winners and problem-solving exercises will engage those students who excel in verbal, social, and auditory learning styles. Completing the problem-solving practice and navigating the complexity of learning how to calculate reactants and products will appeal to students who prefer logical and spatial reasoning. Lastly, students who gravitate toward hands-on activities will benefit from the spectroscopy lab and atomic reaction simulation.
The formative activity uses individual and small group instruction because students are exploring the concept in a digital environment. Small group instruction was emphasized during student-led problem-solving presentations in order to celebrate the skills of each lab team and further the connection between collaboration and the scientific method. Whole-group instruction facilitates the review of key concepts prior to the unit assessment.
In order to advance the understanding of atomic, nuclear, and quantum physics, I will introduce academic content language through (1) reading diverse texts, (2) applying student-led scripts of academic routines, and (3) providing feedback through dynamic academic vocabulary. Initially, students will be assigned the reading from our textbook and online video series that aligns with our unit on atomic structure. Students will encounter diverse applications of terms like nucleon, photon, spectra, and energy levels through the text, diagrams, and examples. As students take the role of the presenter during the sharing of problem-solving strategies, they will be prompted with a “given-find-solution” format that will provide structure and repetition to their use of academic language. Finally, students will be asked questions from their peers and instructor about their interpretation of their selected problem. The students will be reminded to use proper terminology throughout their presentations during the question-and-answer portion.
Promote students’ learning of atomic, nuclear, and quantum physics and engage students in critical thinking through (1) the use of analogies, (2) the use of student interaction and collaboration, and (3) by allowing sufficient time for reflection. The use of analogies helps students to make connections between concepts they know well and concepts that are new to them. For example, in explaining the difference between atomic nuclei and the distance to the first electron the comparison of a grape at the fifty-yard-line of the superdome is an apt analogy. This style of interaction supports learners whose preferred learning style is more verbal, social, and/or auditory. By allowing sufficient time for reflection between activities, students will have time to discuss in lab tables and ask questions of the instructor while working through examples. The process of reflection benefits critical thinking by allowing students the opportunity to synthesize new concepts into their existing knowledge base.
The selected learning activities will address students’ strengths and needs through qualitative and quantitative methods. I will assess students’ conceptual understanding of atomic physics during the pre-assessment simulation by collecting data in the form of student responses. When students express confidence with the mathematical aspects of nuclear reactions, then we will advance to the collaborative phase of the lesson which includes a student-led problem-solving presentation. The questions increase in difficulty as they go from formative to collaborative activities. Students are encouraged to select intermediate to advanced question types to present back to the class. Each small group/lab team is established anew each quarter and the constituents of each group are determined based on strengths and opportunities demonstrated. Following the student presentations, student understanding will be assessed with a 10-question quiz that is aligned with IBHL Physics standards. In order to ensure students have adequate agency for growth, I will provide students with the opportunity for revision after grading the quiz.
I chose specific learning activities in response to the expressed challenges and preferences of my students. The student groups that work together are a logical extension of their weekly lab teams. Each lab team has participants who are strong in verbal, and quantitative analysis, and attention to detail. The balance of strengths and weaknesses in these groups allows for a higher level of confidence when presenting the problem-solving method to the class.
Classroom Activities
Through this unit students will complete a series of laboratory exercises, online simulations, homework practice, in-class discussion, and research activities in order to establish and deepen their understanding of important concepts related to nuclear physics. The role of the laboratory exercises is to provide students with a model for the scientific method in general and connect them to the most significant experiments contributing to our current understanding of nuclear physics specifically. Homework practice serves as an opportunity for students to develop their connection to concepts and quantitative analysis in an independent manner. Prior to completing assessments and immediately after homework practice for each unit section, students engage in small group discussions where specific questions are presented to the class and responses are reviewed by their peer group. Weekly quizzes serve as a checkpoint for student progress and understanding of key concepts and benchmarks for their progress toward the IB exam at the end of the semester. The unit as a whole is bookended by two Nobel Prize-inspired research assignments. Following the coverage of all unit subsections student knowledge is assessed with a formal assessment.
Laboratory Exercises
Spectroscopy Lab: The goal of this laboratory exercise is to make qualitative observations of atomic emission spectra and a continuous spectrum using incandescent light, UV light, and various emission spectra tubes. This helps students to verify Kirchoff’s Laws for spectroscopy. A notable omission for these observations is the absorption spectrum which can be found when white light is filtered through a cool, low-density gas.[23]
Photoelectric Effect: Einstein was awarded the 1921 Nobel Prize for physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect. Students will apply an established procedure to qualitatively observe the effect using an electroscope and various light sources.[24]
Hydrostatic Equilibrium: The goal of this lab is to model the balance of pressure inside the sun by using liquid pressure in a closed system. The experiment serves as a fundamental review of fluid statics. The gravitational pressure affecting the fluid is determined to be in equilibrium with the liquid pressure according to Archimedes’ Principle. While the sun’s gravitational pressure is balanced by the outward pressure of fusion in the core.
Thermal Equilibrium: The goal of this lab is to model the thermal equilibrium of the sun by applying heat to a rotating body. Thermal energy transfers to rotational motion as external heat is transferred to a body of water stored in a conductive vessel. The inspiration for this review of thermodynamics comes from the ancient Greeks who had established the “Hero’s Engine.”
Online Simulations[25]
- Rutherford Scattering simulation
- Alpha Decay simulation
- HR Diagram simulation
Homework Practice
Research
- Nobel Prize – teacher-led
- Nobel Prize – student-led
Assessment
- Quizzes
- Exam
By completing the 5 areas of classroom activities students develop confidence in understanding the core concepts related to the atomic structure, radioactivity, nuclear fission, and nuclear fusion.
Resources
Admin. “Japan and Europe Inaugurate Largest Tokamak in the World.” ITER – the Way to New Energy, 30 Nov. 2023, https://www.iter.org/node/20687/japan-and-europe-inaugurate-largest-tokamak-world.
“Astronomy.” Accessed March 31, 2025. https://www.bu.edu/astronomy/files/2009/11/spectroscopy.pdf.
Chaisson, Eric, and S. McMillan. Astronomy Today. 7th ed, Addison-Wesley, 2011.
Chapman, I. T., and N. R. Walkden. “An Overview of Shared Technical Challenges for Magnetic and Inertial Fusion Power Plant Development.” Philosophical Transactions. Series A, Mathematical, Physical, and Engineering Sciences, vol. 379, no. 2189, Jan. 2021, p. 20200019, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2020.0019.
Decker, Alexander. Mathematics of Fusion Reactors and Energy Gain Factor Model. https://www.academia.edu/1291783/Mathematics_of_Fusion_Reactors_and_Energy_Gain_Factor_Model. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
“Grade Gorilla | IB Physics Revision Questions.” Accessed March 31, 2025. https://www.gradegorilla.com/IB-physics-revision-questions.php.
“Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram Explorer – Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram – NAAP.” Accessed April 1, 2025. https://astro.unl.edu/naap/hr/animations/hr.html.
HOMER, DAVID HEATHCOTE, WILLIAM PIETKA, MACIEJ. Oxford Resources for IB DP physics: Coursebook. S.l.: OXFORD UNIV PRESS, 2023.
NobelPrize.org. “How the Sun Shines.” Accessed April 1, 2025. https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/how-the-sun-shines.
IB Physics Guide First assessment 2025. Accessed March 30, 2025. https://ibphysics.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/ib-physics-syllabus.pdf.
Introduction to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion | SpringerLink. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-319-22309-4. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024.
ITER. http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/NucEne/iter.html#c1. Accessed 8 Feb. 2025.
Knight, Randall Dewey, Brian Jones, and Stuart Field. College physics: A strategic approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson, 2015.
Laberge, Michel. “An Acoustically Driven Magnetized Target Fusion Reactor.” Journal of Fusion Energy, vol. 27, no. 1–2, 2008, pp. 65–68, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10894-007-9091-4.
Manhattan Project: Science > The Atom and Atomic Structure. https://www.osti.gov/opennet/manhattan-project-history/Science/Atom/atom.html. Accessed 30 Mar. 2025
“Nobel Prize in Physics 1961.” NobelPrize.Org, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1961/hofstadter/biographical/. Accessed 8 Feb. 2025. An overview of Nobel Prize Laureate Robert Hofstadter’s contribution to our understanding of atomic spectra.
PhET. “Https://Phet.Colorado.Edu/En/Simulations/Browse.” Accessed March 31, 2025. https://phet.colorado.edu/en/simulations/browse. A collection of science-based simulations generated by the University of Colorado Boulder
“Physics 2115.” Accessed March 31, 2025. https://www.cod.edu/faculty/websites/fazzinid/physics-2115.html. A photoelectric effect lab format that focuses on qualitative observations.
Progress toward Fusion Energy Breakeven and Gain as Measured against the Lawson Criterion | Physics of Plasmas | AIP Publishing. https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pop/article/29/6/062103/2847827/Progress-toward-fusion-energy-breakeven-and-gain. Accessed 17 Dec. 2024. An overview of the
Search for Public Schools – BOOKER T. WASHINGTON HS (403024001583). https://nces.ed.gov/ccd/schoolsearch/school_detail.asp?Search=1&DistrictID=4030240&ID=403024001583. Accessed 21 Jan. 2025.
TSOKOS, K A. PHYSICS FOR THE IB DIPLOMA COURSEBOOK WITH DIGITAL ACCESS (2 YEARS). [S.l.]: CAMBRIDGE UNIV PRESS, 2023.
Wurden, G. A., et al. “Magneto-Inertial Fusion.” Journal of Fusion Energy, vol. 35, no. 1, 2016, pp. 69–77, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10894-015-0038-x.
Zhang, Emily. Why It Was Almost Impossible To Make The Blue LED. Vol. Feb 8, 2024. Veritasium. Accessed March 30, 2025. https://youtu.be/AF8d72mA41M?si=LaARrv77KwgyddSd.
Appendix
Standards covered by this unit include International Baccalaureate Core Curriculum for Topic E. Nuclear Physics most directly. Additional standards addressed include the Oklahoma State Department of Education curriculum for Physics. Specifically, the Oklahoma Academic Standards (OAS) Physics, Matter and its Interactions (PH.PS1.8) states: “Develop models to support explanations of the changes in stability and composition of the nucleus of the atom and the associated energies released during the processes of fission, fusion, and radioactive decay.” Secondary coverage of OAS Physics Energy standard (PH.PS3.4): “Plan and conduct an investigation to provide evidence that the transfer of thermal energy between components in a closed system results in a more uniform distribution among the components in the system (second law of thermodynamics)” is also covered.
Beyond the focused IB curriculum core standards and Oklahoma Academic Standards, this curriculum unit has significant overlap with the Advanced Placement (AP) Physics 2: Algebra-Based content is the Unit 15 Modern Physics sections: 15.1 Quantum Theory and Wave-Particle Duality, 15.2 The Bohr Model of Atomic Structure, 15.3 Emission and Absorption Spectra, 15.4 Blackbody Radiation, 15.5 The Photoelectric Effect, 15.6 Compton Scattering, 15.7 Fission, Fusion, and Nuclear Decay, and 15.8 Types of Radioactive Decay.
Notes
[1] “Search for Public Schools – BOOKER T. WASHINGTON HS (403024001583).”
[2] IB Physics Guide First assessment 2025
[3] HOMER, OXFORD RESOURCES FOR IB DP PHYSICS, 590.
[4] Knight, Jones, and Field, College Physics, 943.
[5] HOMER, OXFORD RESOURCES FOR IB DP PHYSICS, 592-596.
[6] “Nobel Prize in Physics 1961.”
[7] Manhattan Project
[8] HOMER, OXFORD RESOURCES FOR IB DP PHYSICS, 632-635.
[9] Knight, Jones, and Field, College Physics, 978-980.
[10] Chaisson and McMillan, Astronomy Today, 166-167.
[11] “How the Sun Shines.”
[12] HOMER, OXFORD RESOURCES FOR IB DP PHYSICS, 680.
[13] Chaisson and McMillan, Astronomy Today, 492-500.
[14] Knight, Jones, and Field, College Physics, 956-957.
[15] Chaisson and McMillan, Astronomy Today, 684-685.
[16] “Introduction to Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion | SpringerLink.”
[17] “Progress toward Fusion Energy Breakeven and Gain as Measured against the Lawson Criterion | Physics of Plasmas | AIP Publishing.”
[18] Decker, “Mathematics of Fusion Reactors and Energy Gain Factor Model.”
[19] Chapman and Walkden, “An Overview of Shared Technical Challenges for Magnetic and Inertial Fusion Power Plant Development.”
[20] Wurden et al., “Magneto-Inertial Fusion.”
[21] “ITER.”
[22] IB Physics Guide First assessment 2025
[23] “Astronomy.”
[24] “Physics 2115.”
[25] Phet
[26] TSOKOS
[27] “Grade Gorilla | IB Physics Revision Questions.”
[28] Zhang, Why It Was Almost Impossible To Make The Blue LED.