Dr. James Tindle
Abstract
This curriculum unit examines the history and governance of the Iroquois (or Haudenosaunee) Confederacy, focusing on their material culture and resilient political system. The unit also highlights the Confederacy’s influence on early American democratic ideals and governance structures. Through engaging activities, role-play simulations, and discussions, students will delve into Haudenosaunee culture and political philosophy while examining principles of natural rights and the social contract as expressed by Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke. Analyzing primary sources and comparing Indigenous and colonial political systems, students will develop historical thinking skills, understand Haudenosaunee political culture, and appreciate the diverse origins of American democracy. Teaching strategies prioritize active engagement and critical inquiry, with hands-on activities like making Wampum belts and simulations such as the “Council of Chiefs.” Through this unit, students will scrutinize the enduring relevance of Indigenous democratic ideals and how those concepts resonate in the institutions of the United States today. Through this multifaceted approach, students will gain a deeper understanding of the importance of Iroquois politics and society in shaping early American political development.
Content Objectives
Understanding the Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee)
Objective: To provide students with a comprehensive understanding of the history, culture, and political organization of the Iroquois Confederacy and its possible influence on the political structures of the United States.
The Haudenosaunee Confederacy, also known as the Iroquois League, was a sophisticated and influential alliance of Indigenous nations in what is now the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. Established long before European contact, it originally included five nations: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca, with the Tuscarora joining later to make six. This Confederacy was remarkable for its democratic system of governance, which was based on consensus and the collective decision-making of its member nations. Its political structure was deeply rooted in communal values, kinship ties, and an extensive network of clan-based relationships. The Haudenosaunee played a pivotal role in their territory’s political and social landscape, spanning modern-day New York, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and Quebec.
Before proceeding, I’m including a few brief notes about terminology to avoid confusion. When approaching the names included in this unit, such as Iroquois or Haudenosaunee, we should remember that most of these words fall into one of two categories: endonyms and exonyms. An endonym (sometimes called an autonym) is what people call themselves, and an exonym is how outsiders refer to a group of people. Exonyms such as “Mohawk” and “Iroquois” wield the double-edged sword of being commonly recognizable while also originating in negative connotations or slurs. From my research, these two exonyms have gained wide acceptance among the Indigenous groups of Upstate New York, so using them in your curriculum shouldn’t be too big of a problem. Just be sure to use endonyms like “Haudenosaunee” when possible to respect those people’s traditions and widen students’ understanding of history’s complexities.
The first question many people, including myself, bring to this topic centers around which term is more accurate, “Iroquois” (EAR-o-coy) or “Haudenosaunee” (HO-den-o-SHOW-nay). The name Iroquois is from a French, or possibly Algonquian, word of uncertain origins, which refers to the confederacy of nations living in Upstate New York. The name Haudenosaunee simply means “People of the Longhouse,” describing their most common habitation spaces and their geographical arrangement in a long line of national territory. You will also find many references to the “Iroquois language grouping,” which includes several Indigenous nations, such as the Cherokee, that were not part of the Confederacy.
“Mohawk” is another term possessing both modern familiarity and negative historical roots. Originally used as a pejorative term, the word is said to derive from an Algonquian, or possibly Unami Delaware, term meaning “they eat living things,” a reference to cannibalism. The people of this nation refer to themselves as the Kanien’keha:ka or “People of the Flint Nation.” Teachers should make their own decisions about which term will be more accessible for their students. Remember the importance of accuracy and respect when engaging with culture and language, especially of people whose stories Western histories have so often mishandled.
One last note on terminology before we get to the meat of the unit: “Confederacy” or “League.” These terms both refer to the political and social grouping of (eventually) six nations, which I will describe below. As you’ve probably already noticed, I have been using these terms interchangeably. This decision comes from the fact that these terms differ along political, rather than cultural or linguistic, semantics. I have noticed that older secondary sources tend to rely more heavily on “League,” while Native resources often use “Confederacy,” but the difference seems mainly a matter of preference. That should be enough terminology for now.
The Iroquois Confederacy, also known as the Haudenosaunee, was a powerful alliance of Native American nations located in what is now the territory around the southern Great Lakes. The League consisted of five original member nations: the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, and Seneca. These nations are represented on the official Iroquois flag depicted below, with the position of each nation corresponding to its geographic location within the League’s traditional lands. The Tuscarora Nation later emigrated to Upstate New York and received territory west of the Seneca Nation, bringing the League to its present six members. Each nation contributed to the Confederacy’s collective governance and decision-making process, which operated on principles of consensus and mutual respect. The Haudenosaunee inhabited a vast territory that spanned present-day New York, Pennsylvania, Ontario, and Quebec, encompassing diverse ecosystems ranging from fertile river valleys to dense forests.
The Confederacy centered around a system of clan-based governance, with each nation consisting of multiple clans that traced their lineage through matrilineal descent. Matrilineal descent refers to a system of lineage and inheritance in which family ties, kinship, and social status trace through the mother. Matrilineal descent is often associated with societies where women play prominent roles in family and community life, which was undoubtedly the case with the Haudenosaunee, as I will explain later. Political authority was vested in a council of chiefs and clan mothers, who were responsible for making decisions on behalf of their respective nations. The Onondaga Nation served as the central seat of government, where representatives from each member nation gathered to discuss matters of common interest and resolve disputes through deliberation and consensus-building. In his book, The Ordeal of the Longhouse, historian Daniel Richter clarifies, “The League always provided more a spiritual than a political form of unity,” which allowed the arrangement to adapt and endure as their world shifted with the arrival of European colonizers.[1] Richter also describes several geographical and cultural advantages that allowed the Confederacy to gain power and weather the arrival of Europeans. For example, Richter explains, “An inland location placed the peoples of the Longhouse at sufficient distance from centers of European expansion to allow them to adapt to changed circumstances before being assailed by epidemics and overrun by colonists, missionaries, and other interlopers.”[2] This unique political structure and geographical situation allowed the Haudenosaunee to maintain a delicate balance of power and autonomy among member nations while remaining flexible in the face of external threats and challenges.
An essential question at the core of this unit is how political systems survive and change. One pivotal aspect of Haudenosaunee culture and politics that played a crucial role in forming and sustaining the Confederacy was the practice of mourning wars. These wars were conducted not for territorial expansion but to heal communities after losing community members, incorporating captives from other tribes into their societies to replace those lost. Richter writes that “mourners’ emotions were directed into ritualized channels” because the loss of a family member could potentially send an individual into a cycle of despair and revenge that would hurt the community at large.[3] This practice of funneling the natural impulses into ceremonies that reduced harm underlined the Confederacy’s focus on restoring balance and peace within their communities, reflecting the deep interconnection between their governance, social structure, and cultural values. The mourning war was a manifestation of the Haudenosaunee’s complex understanding of justice and reconciliation, essential in helping an individual grieve for a loved one and in maintaining the internal cohesion and stability of the Confederacy on a larger scale. This prioritization of healthily managing natural impulses on the individual scale naturally flowed into a system of governance that included checks and balances, communal decision-making, and balanced diplomacy, a sophisticated arrangement that allowed the Confederacy to endure and adapt during many eras of drastic change.
This emphasis on proper periods of mourning as a method for achieving peace and avoiding cycles of vengeance traces back to the very roots of the Confederacy. According to Richter, most accounts of the League’s founding agree that the story occurred during “a period of incessant warfare among the peoples of the Five Nations.” One man named Hiawatha, the story goes, was robbed of his reason at the loss of all his daughters. While wandering in rage through the forest, he encountered a supernatural being known as the Peacemaker, who used strings of Wampum beads to lead Hiawatha through a consolation ritual that “removed grief and eased the mind.” The Peacemaker encouraged Hiawatha to share this “Good News of Peace and Power” with the Five Nations as an ideal replacement for the cycle of mourning wars that would typically follow the death of a family member. The emphasis on “consolation for bereaved people” would address the “same cultural needs served by armed conflict” but make violence unnecessary. This message of peace helped to unify the Five Nations into the Haudenosaunee Confederacy.[4]
Partially recognizing this history, Iroquois diplomatic ceremonies traditionally prioritized consolation and grief. Most students will relate to the idea that grief often incites other strong emotions like anger and a desire for revenge. As such, many students will likely understand the Iroquois tradition of intertwining peace talks with the consolation of the bereaved to prevent further cycles of bloodshed and rage. Historian Jon Parmenter writes that the “nations of the League transformed former practices of blood revenge into a stable system of mutual defense and orderly political succession” so that the death of a leader would no longer incite grieving individuals “into the field to commit hostilities against neighboring (now-allied) nations.”[5] Looking at the wisdom of the Haudenosaunee relating to connections between mourning, diplomacy, and revenge will help students see how the Confederacy’s government existed for so long: by handling natural conflict between the Nations with minimal loss of life through intricate and emotionally meaningful rituals. Examining these complex and perhaps foreign-sounding concepts with students will prompt them to ask more profound questions about what political structures require to avoid collapse.
Central to Haudenosaunee life are communal values and kinship ties that form the bedrock of their social fabric. The extended family concept reaches beyond biological relations to encompass an expansive network of kinship connections, known as clans, which serve as the foundation of Haudenosaunee society. Each clan includes individuals who trace their lineage through matrilineal descent, with family ties and responsibilities passing from mother to child. These kinship ties foster a sense of interconnectedness and mutual obligation, where shared history, identity, and collective responsibility bind individuals.
In Haudenosaunee culture, reciprocity, cooperation, and collective decision-making permeate all aspects of daily life. Communal values emphasize the importance of consensus-building and harmonious relations within and among member nations of the Confederacy. Members of the Nation reach decisions through dialogue and consensus among council members, with each voice given equal weight in deliberations. This emphasis on inclusivity and collaboration reflects the Haudenosaunee belief in every individual’s inherent worth and dignity within the community. By upholding communal values and kinship ties, the Haudenosaunee have forged resilient social bonds that endure through generations, ensuring the vitality and cohesion of their vibrant culture and traditions.
After reviewing the work of secondary authors like Richter and Parmenter, I have decided that emphasizing Haudenosaunee material culture is a simple way to help students understand several important aspects of their life philosophies. I intend to focus on physical expressions of central Haudenosaunee ideals, such as Wampum and longhouse design. Examining this culture will require students to study primary sources through objects like Wampum belts and documents like the Great Law of Peace. I will discuss both examples in more detail below under the Teaching Strategies section.
Showcasing images and illustrations of traditional longhouses, like those found in the Ganondagan (ga-NON-da-gan) State Historic Site in New York, can offer students a tangible glimpse into the literal and symbolic foundations of Iroquois communities. These longhouses represented more than just places to live; they embodied the communal values and kinship ties mentioned above. For example, studying longhouse design elements, such as the bark-covered frames and central hearths, can display the principles of social cohesion and cooperation within Iroquois society. Teachers can encourage students to reflect on the significance of longhouses as spaces for community gatherings, diplomacy, and spiritual ceremonies, providing insights into the interconnectedness of Iroquois culture. As a side note, focusing on the physical space also provides possibilities for engaging activities (see the Role-Playing and Simulation section below).
Exploring the material culture of the Iroquois Confederacy can also include symbolic objects like wampum belts and strings. These intricately crafted pieces of art, adorned with shell beads and woven patterns, served as devices for recording historical events, treaties, myths, and traditional stories among Haudenosaunee nations and structuring diplomatic interactions in rituals like the condolence ceremony. Introducing students to replicas or digital representations of wampum belts and strings can deepen their appreciation for these artifacts’ communicative power and cultural significance. By examining the intricate designs and color symbolism embedded in wampum belts, students can decipher the narratives and diplomatic protocols encoded within, gaining insights into the complex political alliances and values upheld by the Iroquois Confederacy. I have found the subject of wampum belts to be especially exciting because it provides so many avenues for students to handle and even create concrete representations of abstract ideas.
Perhaps the most practical example of Wampum’s value for introducing this aspect of the unit is the Hiawatha Belt. This object not only visually represents the five original nations of the Iroquois Confederacy but also allows you to tell the story of how many Haudenosaunee political traditions got started, as mentioned above. As with exploring longhouse architecture, highlighting the Hiawatha Belt’s symbolic qualities promotes multisensory learning. It lays the groundwork for students to represent other ideas and concepts with their art. See the “Create a Wampum Belt” part of the Classroom Activities section for more ideas.
Depending on the capabilities and interests of your students, including some introductory material on Haudenosaunee beliefs and mythology could be beneficial. For example, the Ganondagan State Historical Site webpage contains a film called The Iroquois Creation Story that you can download or stream for a small fee (which helps support the historical site). This film introduces the beliefs of the people who would later unite under the Confederacy. The animation quality is passable at best, but the film does integrate authentic traditional dances that explain how many Seneca view the creation of their world.
The Haudenosaunee Confederacy’s principles of freedom, collective decision-making, and the intertwined importance of both social and political traditions served as the bedrock of a resilient and long-lasting government and culture that not only made the Iroquois a significant regional power for decades but also impacted the development of neighboring systems of government, particularly that of the United States.
Exploring Early American Political Philosophy
Objective: Introduce students to foundational American political ideas and their connections to the principles of the Iroquois Confederacy.
As every teacher knows, making abstract concepts like political philosophy understandable for students can be challenging, so I have centered much of this section around questions that students can trace back to their own experiences. For instance, you could introduce the concept of natural rights, which I explore in more detail below, by asking students to reflect on their rights and freedoms as individuals. What do they think are fundamental rights? Can they think of any foundational American documents that talk about those rights? Drawing parallels between contemporary issues and early American political ideals can spark lively debates and encourage critical thinking among students, both those who’ve encountered these ideals before and those who’re thinking about them for the first time.
As a way to engage with early American political philosophy without losing students in the weeds, focusing on the prominent Enlightenment philosopher John Locke is an excellent microcosm into which students can sink their teeth. Locke played a pivotal role in shaping early American political thought with his ideas on natural rights and individual freedom. He argued that individuals are born with certain inherent rights, including the rights to life, liberty, and property. These natural rights, he believed, precede and supersede the authority of any government or ruler. Locke’s concept of the social contract, articulated in his influential work “Two Treatises of Government,” argued that individuals consent to be governed in exchange for the protection of their natural rights. This notion resonated deeply with American colonists, who sought to justify their resistance to British rule and assert their right to self-government based on individual autonomy and consent principles.
Locke’s ideas found fertile ground among early American nationalists who championed the cause of independence and democratic self-determination. The Declaration of Independence, written by Thomas Jefferson and inspired by Locke’s philosophy, famously declares that “all men are created equal” and are endowed by their Creator with “certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” This ringing endorsement of natural rights and popular sovereignty not only helped galvanize the American Revolution but also laid the groundwork for establishing a constitutional republic founded on individual freedom and limited government. By exploring Locke’s influence on early American political thought, students can gain a deeper appreciation for the enduring legacy of Enlightenment ideals in shaping the trajectory of American democracy and human rights.
Before concluding this discussion of John Locke’s importance, you should also be aware of a vital irony of his work concerning Native Americans: Locke was one of the first writers to provide widely accepted rationales for Europeans to remove Indigenous peoples from their land. Locke’s “Second Treatise of Government” introduces the Vacuum Domicilium principle, significantly impacting European colonialism and indigenous land rights by arguing that unimproved land, according to European agricultural standards, was essentially ownerless and available for colonization. This viewpoint, deeply intertwined with his broader philosophy on property and labor, legitimized the displacement of indigenous peoples from their lands by suggesting that actual land ownership resulted from labor and cultivation. Locke’s famous statement, “in the beginning, all the world was America,” reflects his perception of the New World as an extensive, underutilized resource, disregarding the complex land stewardship and farming techniques of indigenous communities, thus making their territorial and sovereign rights practically invisible to European colonizers. Moreover, Locke’s active participation in the English colonization of North America, mainly through his roles related to the Carolina colonies and investments in colonial endeavors, reveals that his philosophical concepts were not merely academic but also had direct consequences on colonial policies and the European entitlement mentality towards the New World’s riches. This critical aspect of Locke’s work underscores a paradox in his legacy, championing individual rights and property while providing a philosophical foundation for systematically expropriating indigenous lands.[6]
This principle of Vacuum Domicilium exemplifies the complexities and contradictions in Locke’s thought, especially his role in discussions surrounding natural law, property rights, and representative government. While Locke advocated for individual rights and freedoms, his rationale for land appropriation demonstrates a lack of respect for Indigenous sovereignty. Consider this contradiction when exploring Locke’s impact on American democratic ideals and political structures.
Studying the writings of seminal and complex figures like Locke can breathe life into the abstract principles of early American political thought. Students can analyze primary source documents like the Declaration of Independence and the Albany Plan, looking for critical arguments, evidence, and underlying assumptions. Remember, as the parallels with Haudenosaunee political structures begin to appear, students may start champing at the bit and wanting to work ahead, so plan accordingly.
When trying to keep students interested in somewhat drier material like this, I like to use interactive activities whenever possible to help students actively engage with the stories of history. Mock debates, town hall meetings, or constitutional conventions allow students to assume the roles of historical figures and grapple with thorny issues of governance and representation. I will discuss the value of role-playing and simulation in the Teaching Strategies section of this unit.
Analyzing Influence
Objective: Enable students to analyze and evaluate the impact of Iroquois political structures and values on early American political development.
American political development is widely recognized for its roots in classical antiquity, drawing extensively from Greek and Roman political philosophies. Concepts such as democracy, republicanism, and civic duty, central to American governance, clearly echo the assemblies of Athens and the senate of Rome. These classical influences are emblematic of the ideals of civic participation and public morality, which have been celebrated and studied extensively in the context of the founding of the United States. However, while the contributions of European Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke and classical antiquity are well-documented and popularly understood, the significant influence of Indigenous political structures, particularly those of the Iroquois Confederacy or the Haudenosaunee, often remains underrecognized. One of this unit’s central goals is to help teachers show students how Indigenous ideas and institutions, like those of the Haudenosaunee League, contributed to early Americans’ ideas about how representative systems could function.
The Iroquois Confederacy, with its sophisticated governance model based on collective decision-making, consensus-building, and a balance of power among its member nations, exemplifies democratic principles that parallel those of ancient Greece and the republican virtues of ancient Rome. The Great Law of Peace, the Haudenosaunee’s constitutional framework, predates the American Constitution and incorporates federalist principles, advocating for a union where each member’s voice is crucial and respected—reflecting a federated governance structure similar to that which the Roman Republic sought through its complex system of checks and balances.
By broadening the historical narrative to include the Haudenosaunee alongside other influences such as the Enlightenment and classical philosophy, educators and students can better understand the diverse origins of American political systems. This acknowledgment not only enriches our grasp of American political genealogy but also respects the multifaceted interactions that have shaped the nation’s political landscape. Recognizing the contributions of Native American governance structures, such as those of the Iroquois Confederacy, alongside those of European and classical philosophies, is essential for a balanced and inclusive understanding of the ideological foundations of American democracy. Such an integrated perspective ensures that the significant yet often overlooked influence of Indigenous political innovations takes its rightful place in the annals of American history, fostering a deeper appreciation for the diverse contributions to the political ideals that shape modern governance.
As I mentioned at the start of this unit, scholars don’t debate whether or not Native American political structures, particularly that of the Iroquois League, influenced aspects of American political development. Historian Jerry Stubben states, “The scholarly debate has gone beyond proving that indigenous societies did influence the development of American democratic norms, values, and institutions to defining the degree of such influence.”[7] Disagreements among content experts have mostly shifted to disputes about the degree to which that influence shaped the philosophical roots of essential documents like the Declaration of Independence and the U.S. Constitution. Since this debate encompasses such a spectrum of arguments, I have condensed this unit’s secondary source base to one article explaining the basic tenets of what many scholars call the Indigenous Influence Theory of American Democracy.
Analyzing the influence of Iroquois political structures and values on early American political development invites students to explore the interconnectedness of diverse cultural traditions and historical narratives. Encourage students to think critically about the encounters between indigenous nations like the Haudenosaunee and European colonizers, examining how these interactions shaped the formation of colonial governments and the United States Constitution. By unpacking primary sources and scholarly interpretations, students can discern how ideas of federalism, representation, and consensus-building resonate with principles embedded in the Great Law of Peace.
Incorporating Native sources in the study of the Iroquois Confederacy is essential for presenting an authentic and respectful understanding of their political and cultural contributions. Indigenous voices provide critical first-person perspectives that challenge and enrich traditional Eurocentric narratives. By centering Native scholarship, oral histories, and cultural artifacts, educators enable students to access a more nuanced and comprehensive portrayal of the Haudenosaunee. This approach validates the lived experiences and historical agency of Indigenous peoples and highlights the sophistication of their political systems, such as the democratic principles embodied in the Great Law of Peace. Furthermore, employing Native sources empowers students to critically analyze historical events and recognize the ongoing impact of colonial legacies. As educators, our goal should be to foster an educational environment where we convey the history of the Iroquois Confederacy with the depth and respect it merits, thereby encouraging students to appreciate the diversity of narratives that form our collective past. This methodology aligns with best practices in pedagogy that advocate for inclusivity and the critical examination of sources, promoting a more just and comprehensive educational paradigm.
Drawing parallels between American patriots’ ideals of independence and democratic self-determination and the egalitarian political structure of the Haudenosaunee can offer students valuable insights into the diverse origins of democratic governance. Just as John Locke’s concept of the social contract emphasized the idea that individuals consent to be governed in exchange for the protection of their natural rights, the political structure of the Haudenosaunee, as outlined in the Great Law of Peace, reflects a collective commitment to mutual respect, consensus-building, and shared decision-making. Like the American patriots who sought to establish a government based on popular sovereignty and individual liberty principles, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy operated on the premise of consent and cooperation among its member nations.
In both systems, authority derives from the consent of the governed, entrusting leaders with the responsibility of upholding the collective welfare and preserving the rights and freedoms of their constituents. Just as many early Americans emphasized the importance of representative government and checks on centralized authority, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy employed a system of councils and chiefs to ensure that they had distributed power equitably and reached decisions through consensus. By examining these parallels, students can gain a deeper understanding of the diverse roots of democratic governance and appreciate the enduring legacy of Indigenous political traditions in shaping the principles and practices of American democracy. Through comparative analysis, which I will cover more thoroughly in the Teaching Strategies section, students can explore the complexities of political thought and governance, recognizing the rich tapestry of ideas and institutions that have shaped human history.
To help students navigate the complexities of historical interpretation, foster an inclusive and respectful classroom environment that honors diverse perspectives and voices. Provide opportunities for students to engage with Indigenous scholars, community members, and cultural practitioners who can offer insights into the lived experiences and enduring legacies of Native peoples. Encourage students to critically evaluate historical narratives and challenge Eurocentric interpretations that marginalize Indigenous contributions to American political thought and governance. By centering Indigenous perspectives and elevating Indigenous voices, educators can empower students to recognize the multifaceted influences that shape our understanding of history and democracy.
Through thoughtful reflection and dialogue, students can develop a deeper appreciation for the enduring legacy of the Iroquois Confederacy and its profound impact on the trajectory of American political development in modern times. Emphasizing the foundational importance of Native ideas and voices can encourage students to explore contemporary issues and movements that highlight the ongoing relevance of Indigenous sovereignty and self-determination in the United States and beyond. After exploring this unit, students will be well-positioned to examine how Indigenous communities continue to assert their political agency and advocate for justice in the face of systemic inequalities and environmental challenges, as they have done at events like the Standing Rock protests. By connecting historical inquiry to current events, we can inspire our students to become informed and empathetic global citizens who actively engage with social justice and human rights issues.
Teaching Strategies
Primary Source Analysis
Objective: Utilize primary sources such as the Great Law of Peace, Locke’s Two Treatises on Government, and the Albany Plan to explore the perspectives of the Iroquois people and early American colonists.
Primary source analysis will serve as a cornerstone in uncovering the rich historical context of the Iroquois Confederacy and its influence on early American political development. By engaging students with authentic documents such as the Great Law of Peace and the Albany Plan, we can prompt critical inquiry into the perspectives and motivations of key historical actors. As students analyze primary source documents, they will grapple with essential questions such as “What insights can we gain from the voices of Indigenous peoples?” or “How do these sources challenge or corroborate dominant narratives of American history?” Through guided discussions and structured activities, students will develop essential historical thinking skills, including contextualization and close reading.
Utilizing primary sources also provides a platform for students to construct nuanced interpretations and historical narratives that reflect diverse perspectives and experiences. Encourage students to consider the broader social, cultural, and political contexts that shaped interactions between the Iroquois Confederacy and European colonizers. By examining primary source documents through multiple lenses, students will uncover layers of meaning and complexity embedded within historical texts. Through collaborative analysis and peer discussion, students will develop critical thinking skills and historical empathy, enabling them to appreciate the diverse perspectives and worldviews that inform our understanding of the past.
Moreover, primary source analysis fosters a sense of historical empathy and connection with the individuals and communities who shaped history. We can encourage students to imagine themselves in the shoes of historical figures, considering the challenges, aspirations, and moral dilemmas they faced. This approach to primary source analysis will empower students to become critical thinkers, empathetic historians, and informed citizens who engage thoughtfully with past and present complexities.
The primary sources that will prove most helpful have briefly appeared above in the Content Objectives section, and I will discuss them in more detail here. Again, just to reiterate the point above about Native voices, the discussion of Iroquois history and culture should revolve around primary sources from the Haudenosaunee themselves rather than materials that focus on European and other non-Indigenous perspectives. The first of these sources should be the Great Law of Peace, the foundational document for the League highlighted above in the Iroquois Confederacy background section.
The Great Law of Peace, a foundational document of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, articulated a sophisticated governance system that emphasized individual members’ rights and the principles of collective decision-making and consensus-building. At its core, the Great Law enshrined the principles of democracy and popular sovereignty, where political authority derived from the consent and participation of the people. Each member of the Confederacy, regardless of gender or social status, had the right to participate in the political process through clan representation and council deliberations. Through a system of clan-based governance, individuals elected chiefs and clan mothers to represent their interests and voice their concerns in council meetings held at the Onondaga Nation.
The Great Law also established mechanisms for maintaining accountability and transparency in government, reflecting the Haudenosaunee belief in the importance of ethical leadership and stewardship. The Iroquois expected their leaders to uphold the values of honesty, integrity, and humility, serving as custodians of the collective welfare and guardians of the natural world. The social contract between the people and their representatives centered on mutual respect and reciprocity, where leaders had a responsibility to preserve the rights and freedoms of their constituents in exchange for their consent and support. By emphasizing the rights of individual members and the collective responsibility of leadership, the Great Law of Peace laid the foundation for a resilient system of governance that fostered unity, harmony, and prosperity among member nations of the Confederacy. Through critical analysis and reflection, students can gain a deeper understanding of the enduring legacy of Indigenous political traditions and their contributions to the development of democratic ideals and principles of governance.
The statutes of the Great Peace resemble foundational American documents like the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution in several ways. For example, Wampum 17-34 outline the rights, duties, and qualifications of chiefs whom the people select to represent them at council fires. Wampum 25 emphasizes the League’s central authority by stating that any chief who tries “to establish any authority independent of the jurisdiction of the League of the Great Peace” will receive three warnings before being “dismissed by the War Chief of his Nation for refusing to conform to the laws of the Great Peace.” From these passages, students can see the importance of establishing the legitimacy of the League as the dominant power among the individual Nations, just like the Constitution does for the United States.
Another area of the Great Law that resembles familiar American documents is the section that guarantees the rights of individual Haudenosaunee citizens. Wampum 93-104 establish that “Whenever an especially important matter or a great emergency is presented before the League Council,” the various chiefs “must submit the matter to the decision of their people and the decision of the people shall affect the decision of the League Council.” Just as the U.S. Constitution enshrined the right of the governed to command the government, so does the Great Law affirm that these big decisions “shall be a confirmation of the voice of the people.”
The Great Law differs significantly from its American counterparts in that it guarantees women equal rights. Wampum 95 states that “The women of every Clan of the Five Nations shall have a Council Fire ever burning” and that they may bring any issue they deem necessary to the attention of the Council of Chiefs. Students who find this aspect of Haudenosaunee politics especially interesting may investigate how early efforts on behalf of women’s rights in the U.S. took inspiration from the Great Law of Peace. The Seneca Falls Convention of 1848, which was America’s first women’s rights convention, included many delegates such as Elizabeth Stanton and Matilda Gage, who “specifically described the greater rights of Iroquois women as proof that the subordinate position of white women was neither natural nor divinely inspired.”[8] This topic ventures beyond the scope of this unit, but I have included a few resources in the Resources section for anyone interested in this angle of Indigenous Influence.
The next crucial primary source is the Albany Plan of Union, a 1754 document intended to “place the British North American colonies under a more centralized government” (State.gov). Officials in England pushed for a treaty between the Iroquois League and the British colonies and wanted to present a united front to the Confederacy. To promote cooperation between the colonies, “representatives of the colonial governments adopted the Albany Plan during a larger meeting known as the Albany Congress.” Only seven colonies attended the meeting, but the congress proposed a union of every British colony except Delaware and Georgia that would “regulate colonial-Indian relations,” handle “territorial disputes between the colonies,” and raise taxes to support the congress.[9]
One of the most vocal and influential supporters of the Albany Plan was Benjamin Franklin, who used his fame within the colonies to advocate for a more centralized colonial government. Stubben writes, “[Scholars] identify Benjamin Franklin as being well acquainted with indigenous people and societies. In his role as negotiator, interpreter, and printer of several treaties between the English colonies and Indian nations between 1736 and 1762, Franklin became well acquainted with the sachems and leaders of most of the tribes in Colonial America and Eastern Canada.”[10] The famous “Join or Die” cartoon from Franklin’s newspaper, The Pennsylvania Gazette, “illustrated the importance of union by comparing the colonies to pieces of a snake’s body.” This cartoon, published in 1754 along with the Albany Plan, represented “the first important proposal to conceive of the colonies as a collective whole united under one government.” Early Americans often used the rattlesnake to embody the united colonies, as evidenced by the now (in)famous yellow Gadsden Flag that displays the “Don’t Tread on Me” motto.
Examining this kind of imagery will not only provide students with further context for the ideas behind the Albany Plan but will also foster discussion about some modern usages of this symbology. Although the colonies did not ultimately adopt the Albany Plan, mainly due to individual colonies’ fear of losing power, the document served as a blueprint for later efforts to create a central government in North America. The Plan was also important because it represented one of the first times anyone had “conceived of the colonies of mainland North America as a collective unit,” separate from England and other colonies. Stubbens traces a straight line from the Albany Plan back to the political structures of the Haudenosaunee, writing, “[Historians] find that the Iroquois Confederacy was a model used by the colonies to join separate sovereign states into a powerful nation and that the Albany Plan, which was the basis for the Articles of Confederation, was derived from the Iroquois Confederacy through Franklin.”[11] Guiding students through primary sources like the Albany Plan and The Great Law of Peace will provide a framework for understanding the complex concepts in this unit and allow them to behave like true historians. Returning to what people really said and wrote is a powerful tool in making distant history come alive and relevant to contemporary events.
Comparative Analysis
Objective: Facilitate discussions and activities that encourage students to compare and contrast the political structures and values of the Iroquois Confederacy with those of early American colonial governments and the United States Constitution.
Comparative analysis will serve as a dynamic framework for students to explore the parallels and divergences between the political structures and values of the Iroquois Confederacy and early American colonial governments. Comparative analysis allows students to discern patterns and connections across different historical contexts. By juxtaposing primary sources such as the Great Law of Peace and colonial charters, students will identify shared governance principles, including consensus-building, representation, and the separation of powers. Through guided discussions and structured activities, students will critically evaluate the organizational frameworks and decision-making processes of both Indigenous and colonial societies, probing for insights into the sources of authority and mechanisms of accountability that shaped political life.
Encouraging students to engage in comparative analysis fosters a deeper understanding of the cultural exchange and conflict that characterized interactions between Indigenous nations and European colonizers. Comparative analysis enables students to consider the complexities of cultural contact and adaptation. Prompt students to examine how cultural differences and power dynamics influenced diplomatic negotiations, trade relations, and territorial disputes between the Iroquois Confederacy and European empires. Through role-playing simulations and debate exercises, students will grapple with the ethical and strategic considerations that informed Indigenous and colonial approaches to diplomacy and governance, gaining insights into the complexities of cross-cultural encounters and negotiation.
Moreover, comparative analysis invites students to reflect on the enduring legacies of Indigenous political traditions within the fabric of American democracy. Comparative analysis challenges students to interrogate prevailing narratives and assumptions about American history. Encourage students to critically evaluate how Indigenous concepts of sovereignty, land tenure, and kinship informed the development of colonial and constitutional governments. By exploring the intersections of Indigenous and Euro-American political philosophies, students will cultivate a nuanced appreciation for American history’s diverse sources of political authority and legitimacy. Through collaborative research projects and multimedia presentations, students will construct compelling narratives that illuminate the complex interplay of cultures and ideologies that shaped early American political development. This approach to comparative analysis will empower students to become critical thinkers, empathetic historians, and engaged citizens who appreciate the rich diversity of political traditions that contribute to the American experience.
Role-Playing and Simulation
Objective: Organize role-playing activities or simulations where students can experience decision-making processes within the Iroquois Confederacy or early American colonial assemblies.
Role-playing and simulation offer immersive opportunities for students to experience the complexities of decision-making and governance within the context of the Iroquois Confederacy and early American colonial assemblies. Role-playing activities encourage students to inhabit historical roles and perspectives. By assuming the roles of Haudenosaunee leaders, colonial governors, and European diplomats, students will engage in authentic negotiations, deliberations, and diplomatic exchanges that mirror historical dynamics. Through structured scenarios and guided prompts like the ones I list below, students will grapple with the challenges of consensus-building, conflict resolution, and cultural diplomacy, gaining insights into Indigenous and colonial societies’ diverse perspectives and interests.
Encouraging students to participate in role-playing and simulation fosters empathy and historical understanding as they navigate the complexities of political decision-making and cultural exchange. Simulation activities provide students with opportunities to inhabit historical contexts and experiences. Prompt students to consider the social, economic, and environmental factors that influenced the actions and decisions of historical actors, encouraging them to analyze the motivations, constraints, and consequences of different policy choices. Through reflective debriefings and peer feedback sessions, students will develop critical thinking skills and historical empathy, gaining a deeper appreciation for the complexities of Indigenous governance and colonial diplomacy.
Moreover, role-playing and simulation enable students to explore the enduring relevance of historical themes and debates within contemporary contexts. Simulation activities invite students to connect past events and ideas to present-day issues and challenges. Encourage students to reflect on the parallels between historical negotiations over land rights, sovereignty and alliance-building, and contemporary debates about Indigenous rights, environmental stewardship, and multicultural democracy. This approach to role-playing and simulation will inspire students to become active participants in shaping the future of democracy and human rights.
One engaging simulation activity that can immerse students in Haudenosaunee culture and political structures is the “Council of Chiefs.” In this simulation, students assume the roles of chiefs from each member nation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy. The simulation begins with students researching the historical roles and responsibilities of chiefs within the Confederacy, including their roles in decision-making, diplomacy, and conflict resolution. An excellent primary source for this research is the Great Law of Peace, which I discussed in the Primary Source section above. As the simulation unfolds, students participate in council meetings to discuss and debate issues of common concern, such as resource management, trade relations, and intertribal conflicts. Through role-playing and collaborative decision-making, students can gain insights into the principles of consensus-building and collective governance that guided Haudenosaunee society.
Another dynamic simulation activity focuses on the constitutional convention and the drafting of early American political documents. In this simulation, students take on the roles of key figures such as Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and James Madison, as well as delegates representing various colonial interests. The simulation begins with students researching the historical context and debates surrounding the drafting of the United States Constitution. The Federalist Papers would be particularly useful in this research because they lay out the main ideas behind the federal system of central government codified in the Constitution. As delegates, students engage in lively debates and negotiations over issues such as representation, federalism, and individual rights. Teachers can guide the simulation by providing guiding questions and historical resources to help students navigate complex political issues and develop persuasive arguments. By participating in the simulation, students can better understand the challenges and compromises that shaped early American political development.
Teachers can adapt both simulation activities to accommodate varying class sizes and instructional contexts. For smaller classes, teachers can facilitate whole-class discussions and role-playing sessions, allowing students to take on multiple roles and explore historical issues in-depth. Teachers can divide students into smaller groups or committees for larger classes, each focusing on specific aspects of the simulation, such as treaty negotiations or constitutional debates. By providing clear instructions, roles, and objectives, teachers can create immersive and interactive learning experiences that bring history and political theory to life for students of all backgrounds and abilities.
Classroom Activities
Create Wampum Belts/Strings
Objective: Instruct students to design a wampum belt representing their classroom’s core principles and values.
One of the most valuable aspects of learning about and creating Wampum belts is understanding symbolism’s role in Haudenosaunee culture and politics. Just as early Americans used Greek and Roman architecture and icons to tell stories about the nature of the U.S., so too did the Iroquois use symbols and non-alphabetical writing to describe their societies. This activity can foster individual creative expression and significantly enrich the “Role-Playing and Simulation” teaching strategy.
Teachers can complete this activity with whatever materials they have readily available. While strings and colored beads can be engaging for students, drawing and coloring “belts” on construction paper or other sturdy materials can work just as well. For demonstrations of traditional Wampum creation, see the Resources section below.
Iroquois Confederacy Timeline
Objective: Have students create a timeline illustrating key events in the history of the Iroquois Confederacy, highlighting important figures, conflicts, and diplomatic relations.
This activity provides an engaging way for students to explore the key events, figures, and diplomatic relations in the history of the Iroquois Confederacy. This activity encourages students to delve into the significant milestones and moments that shaped the Haudenosaunee’s political and cultural development, helping them better understand the Confederacy’s enduring influence on American political history.
To implement this activity, start by introducing the concept of a historical timeline and explain its value in organizing and visualizing key events chronologically. Discuss with students how timelines can provide a structured framework for understanding the evolution of complex political systems, like the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, and facilitate connections between events, figures, and cultural shifts. Below are some step-by-step suggestions for administering this activity:
Research Phase: Assign students to research aspects of the Iroquois Confederacy’s history. Topics may include the founding of the Confederacy, the Great Law of Peace, significant figures such as Hiawatha and the Peacemaker, the formation of the Six Nations, diplomatic relations with European colonizers, and key treaties or agreements. Depending on the existing skills of your students, you could provide a list of primary and secondary sources to guide their research, encouraging the class to find additional materials from reputable sources. This phase helps students gather information and contextualize the Confederacy’s historical narrative.
Collaborative Work: Once students have completed their research, organize them into small groups, each focusing on a specific timeline segment. Within these groups, students can share their research findings, discuss the key events or figures to include on the timeline, and decide how to represent them visually. This collaboration fosters teamwork and allows students to refine their understanding through peer interaction.
Timeline Creation: Supply students with materials for constructing the timeline, such as large sheets of paper, poster boards, or digital tools like Google Slides or Canva. Instruct them to arrange their chosen events chronologically, including brief descriptions, illustrations, or other visual elements to enhance the timeline’s clarity and appeal. Encourage creativity and the use of symbolic elements to represent pivotal moments in the Iroquois Confederacy’s history.
Presentation and Discussion: Once the timelines are complete, have each group present their segment to the class, explaining the significance of the events and figures depicted. Use this opportunity to facilitate class-wide discussions, asking questions to encourage deeper analysis of the timeline’s content. Students can identify overarching themes, recurring patterns, and possible connections between Haudenosaunee history and broader American historical developments.
Reflection and Application: You might conclude the activity with a reflection exercise, where students write about what they learned from the timeline creation process. For example, students could consider how the complex history of the Iroquois Confederacy might relate to contemporary issues involving Indigenous rights, governance, and cultural resilience.
Build a Haudenosaunee Longhouse
Objective: Have students construct a model of a typical Iroquois longhouse.
This project might work better as a collaboration between several classes, allowing Art and/or Shop classes to get involved as well (and also providing some much-needed expertise and materials for us less-handy teachers). Several instructional PDFs for this kind of project exist online, and a link for one is included below in the Resources section.
Create a “Tree of Peace”
Objective: Have students organize a code of classroom conduct.
According to the traditional Haudenosaunee story of the Peacemaker, the newly united nations of the Iroquois League buried their weapons beneath the roots of a white pine tree, renamed Tree of Peace, to symbolize their bond to the Great Law. Using construction paper or posterboard, students can create a “Tree of Peace” that lists ways everyone in the class might get along better. Actions and words that make a hostile learning environment can be “buried” at the tree’s roots. These guidelines help regulate the role-playing portions of the unit, especially if students have invested in the formation of the code’s principles.
Resources
Bibliography for Teachers
“Albany Plan of Union, 1754.” https://history.state.gov/milestones/1750-1775/albany-plan (accessed April 21, 2024). A foundational primary source that represents an early attempt at federalization in the American colonies.
Arneil, Barbara. John Locke and America: The Defense of English Colonialism. Oxford University Press, 1996. Focus primarily on Chapter 5, which describes Locke’s detailed involvement with the administration of the Carolina colony.
Blackhawk, Ned. The Rediscovery of America: Native Peoples and the Unmaking of U.S. History. Yale University Press, 2023. A hefty survey that argues, among other things, that diplomatic complications between the Iroquois and the British government after the French and Indian War contributed to the beginnings of the American Revolution.
Corcoran, Paul. “John Locke on Native Right, Colonial Possession, and the Concept of Vacuum domicilium.” The European Legacy, 2018 23(3), 225–250. https://digital.library.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/44958/1/hdl_44958.pdf (accessed April 21, 2024). Helpful background on Locke’s conception of land ownership, the connection between Native Americans and the “New World,”and Locke’s administrative roles in the North Carolina colony.
Davis, Jennifer. “The Haudenosaunee Confederacy and the Constitution,” Library of Congress Blogs (September 21, 2023). https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2023/09/the-haudenosaunee-confederacy-and-the-constitution/ (accessed April 21, 2024). A more recent take on the connections between the Haudenosaunee and American democracy.
Fenton, William N. The Great Law and the Longhouse: A Political History of the Iroquois Confederacy. University of Oklahoma Press, 1998. A dense tome that covers political, cultural, and military topics ranging from the formation of the League until the end of the American Revolution.
Fenton, William, ed. William Fenton: Selected Writings. University of Nebraska Press, 2009. A collection of essays and articles regarding the Haudenosaunee, ranging from discussions of creation myths to reviews of books by other historians like Richter.
“Great Law of Peace.” http://www.ganienkeh.net/thelaw.html (accessed April 21, 2024). This document is extensive and detailed, so teachers may want to extract selections for students to close-read.
Grinde, Donald A., Jr., and Bruce E. Johansen. “Sauce for the Goose: Demand and Definitions for ‘Proof’ Regarding the Iroquois and Democracy,” The William and Mary Quarterly 53:3 (Jul. 1996). Another valuable discussion of the debate surrounding Indigenous influence on American democracy.
Jennings, Francis. The Ambiguous Iroquois Empire: The Covenant Chain Confederation of Indian Tribes with English Colonies from Its Beginnings to the Lancaster Treaty of 1744. Norton, 1984.
Johansen, Bruce E., and Barbara Alice Mann. Encyclopedia of the Haudenosaunee (Iroquois Confederacy). Greenwood, 2000. Contains many helpful snippets of information that could be useful in handouts, lecture slides, etc.
Lang, Susan S. “Exhibit in Seneca Falls shows how Iroquois women influenced early feminists,” Cornell Chronicle (Jul. 1998). https://news.cornell.edu/stories/1998/07/iroquois-women-influenced-early-feminists. A slightly different angle for the Haudenosaunee impact on American society.
National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI). Haudenosaunee Guide for Eduators. Smithsonian Institution, 2009. https://americanindian.si.edu/sites/1/files/pdf/education/HaudenosauneeGuide.pdf (accessed April 21, 2024). Haudenosaunee/Iroquois overview, mainly from Idigenous contributors. Page 5 contains some brief comments on the Great Law’s contributions to the U.S. Constitution.
NMAI. Telling Stories with Pictures: Collected Comics from Native New Nork. https://americanindian.si.edu/nk360/pdf/Collected-Comics-from-Native-New-York-r.pdf (accessed April 21, 2024). A graphic-novel discussion of Wampum’s creation and function within Iroquois society.
New York State Museum. Building a Model of a Haudenosaunee Longhouse. https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/sites/default/files/longhouse-instructions.pdf (accessed April 21, 2024). This resource might be a practical classroom activity, possibly to be completed in partnership with an Art or Shop class.
Noel, Jan. “‘Fertile with Fine Talk’: Ungoverned Tongues among Haudenosaunee Women and Their Neighbors,” Ethnohistory 57:2 (Spring 2010). A helpful essay on the cultural and political roles of Iroquois women.
Parmenter, Jon. The Edge of the Woods: Iroquoia, 1534-1701. Michigan State University Press, 2010. A more recent survey of Haudenosaunee history that provides beneficial information on the interactions between “Iroquoia” and the colonists and governments of Europe.
Powell, Jim. John Locke: Natural Rights to Life, Liberty, and Property. Foundation for Economic Education, 1996. https://fee.org/articles/john-locke-natural-rights-to-life-liberty-and-property/ (accessed April 21, 2024). An overview of Locke’s intellectual contributions to developing American political ideals and institutions.
Richter, Daniel K. The Ordeal of the Longhouse: The Peoples of the Iroquois League in the Era of European Colonization. University of North Carolina Press, 1994. A seminal work on the history and culture of the Haudenosaunee.
Stubben, Jerry D. “The Indigenous Influence Theory of American Democracy,” Social Science Quarterly 81:3 (Sep. 2000). The pivotal text for understanding and introducing the idea of Native systems inspiring early American political development.
Student Reading List
Bruchac, Joseph. Our Stories Remember: American Indian History, Culture, and Values Through Storytelling. Fulcrum Publishing, 2003.
Bruchac, Joseph. Children of the Longhouse. Puffin, 1998.
De Coteau Orie, Sandra. Did You Hear Wind Sing Your Name? An Oneida Song of Spring. Walker Books for Young Readers, 1996.
Parker, Arthur. Skunny Wundy: Seneca Indian Tales. Syracuse University Press, 1994.
Smith, Cynthia. How the World Was Made: A Cherokee Creation Myth. University of New Mexico Press, 2017.
Online Materials
A brief overview of the Iroquois Confederacy: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=phlgnWCvU_c (accessed April 21, 2024).
The Ganondagan State Historical Site’s webpage contains lots of useful resources on the history of Wampum and how to make replicas in the classroom: https://www.ganondagan.org/Learning/Wampum (accessed April 21, 2024).
A clip showing the inside of a typical longhouse: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kSyjr9X_faM (accessed April 21, 2024).
An excellent video from PBS on the story of Hiawatha, complete with many Native voices: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D0elAQYLdfc (accessed April 21, 2024).
This brief video from the New York State Museum lays out the difference between “Iroquois” and “Haudenosaunee,” also listing the six Haudenosaunee nations and briefly explaining some duties held by each of the nations: https://www.nysm.nysed.gov/education/videos/haudenosaunee-or-iroquois (accessed April 21, 2024).
An overview of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy from the descendants of the Six Nations: https://www.haudenosauneeconfederacy.com/who-we-are/ (accessed April 21, 2024).
Appendix on Implementing District Standards
In my unit, I will focus on four Oklahoma State Content Standards centered on investigating and interpreting primary sources and examining and describing the formative ideas and institutions of American democracy. Students will learn about and apply Standard 8.1.1 to address the importance of the Haudenosaunee in colonial history, which states that students should be able to “Describe the political climate in the British colonies before the French and Indian War including the . . . colonial reaction through the Albany Plan of Union,” and “compare the Iroquois Confederacy to early attempts to unite the colonies.” Moreover, in studying the impact of Indigenous power on colonial America, students will “Summarize the political and economic consequences of the French and Indian War including . . . the migration of colonists into American Indian sovereign territories,” as stated by Standard 8.1.2. Finally, students will delve into the ideological and philosophical roots of the United States, examining how Iroquois ideals, such as collective decision-making, influenced early American political structures. This type of analysis will address Standards 8.3.5 and 8.3.6, which state that students should be able to “Examine the concept of self-government and . . . Analyze the key principles of government established by the Constitution of the United States.”
Notes
[1] Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse, 3.
[2] Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse, 2.
[3] Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse, 33.
[4] Richter, The Ordeal of the Longhouse, 37-38.
[5] Parmenter, The Edge of the Woods, xliv.
[6] Corcoran, “John Locke on Native Right,” 231, 242.
[7] Stubben, “The Indigenous Influence Theory of American Democracy,” 716.
[8] Lang, “Exhibit in Seneca Falls shows how Iroquois women influenced early feminists.”
[9] All references to the Albany Plan come from the document cited in the bibliography.
[10] Stubben, “The Indigenous Influence Theory of American Democracy,” 721.
[11] Stubben, “The Indigenous Influence Theory of American Democracy,” 722.