Tina Berry
Imagine this: you are on a ship and spot land, a new land that your people have never seen. There is strange vegetation and people on the shore with faces like none you have ever seen. Upon meeting these natives, you realize they are poorly clothed, use ridiculous agricultural practices, and do not even know about your God. Heathens and savages! Their weapons are sticks and stones compared to your advanced weaponry of guns and cannons. You know you will easily convert and control them, take their land, their gold, and any other resources you want, and there is nothing they can do to stop you.
Now imagine this: you are standing on the shoreline with others in your community after someone spotted some strange thing out to sea. An animal? As it comes closer and closer, you can spot people onboard a vessel and quickly realize they are nothing like your people. When you meet them, you are in awe of fancy, binding, and hindering layers of clothing, and of the large heavy things they carry with them. The massive beasts they ride on snort, snuffle, and scare you. You have no idea what these men want, but you are eager to find out.
Introduction
Differing points of view can change a lot about how we interpret a situation. If we investigate the European “discovery” of the Americas, we will see many different stories with varying perspectives. This includes Europeans from different countries with different religions and varying intentions in the “new world.” They stand in contrast to the Natives from the northeast coast of North America all the way down to the southern tip of South America. There are many firsthand accounts of the Conquistadors as they encountered new lands, people, and ideas in the west, but also to be found are firsthand accounts of the Native inhabitants of the lands the Conquistadors invaded. It seems that most everything one side did or said confused, amazed, and dumbfounded the other side. So, viewing the perspectives from both sides is essential.
In this unit I will introduce my high school art students to the Spanish Conquistadors and their conquest of the east coast of modern-day Mexico and Central America through science, art, writing, and history. There is a vast amount of land and many different civilizations in this history, so I will focus on some basic pieces along the timeline between 1428 when the Aztec Empire was formed and 1572 when the last Inca Empire was defeated by the Spanish, thus “ending all resistance to the Spanish colonization in South America”.1
After presenting a timeline of major events and information about the Columbian Exchange, I will present information and images of the milpa, or planted field, and what is known as “The Three Sisters,” specifically, corn, beans, and squash. Students will then do a bit of research on their own into a topic of interest representing the time, people, item, or an area and follow a given format to create a representation of their chosen topic and add to a timeline down the hallway outside our classroom.
Background of the school and classroom environment
My students attend public school in Tulsa, Oklahoma. Our school is quite diverse. Minority enrollment is 89%, the vast majority Hispanic. A substantial number of our Hispanic students are English Language Learners, though most are fluent in social English. I teach upper-level Art including Art 2 for high school students, Advanced Art 2, and AP Art. In the past I have taught Art 1 for 6th-12th grades, as well as core subjects in elementary grades. My classroom is large and well established, funded largely through grants that I apply for.
Pedagogical Philosophy and Rationale
Arts integration was the foundation and focus of my master’s degree in education, after getting my bachelor’s degree in fine arts. During my first nine years of teaching, I integrated art into my elementary math, reading, science, and social studies classes. Integration continues to be foundational in my teaching high school art as I integrate those core subjects into my art lessons through project-based learning. My own thirst for knowledge influences my mixing core class curriculum materials into my art lessons. I hope this allows students to explore topics from a unique perspective, gain further insight, and hopefully learn something new and interesting. Students are likely to find significance in cross-curricular lessons where they can connect prior knowledge and/or make personal connections, all of which is needed to retain information.
Project Based Learning (PBL) helps students to understand and retain information. It requires that students actively use creativity, collaboration, communication, and critical thinking. Often, PBL is used to help students understand and approach real world problems on their level, like opening a community business or solving a real-world problem on a local level. In art, I do approach it a little differently.
There are five general steps in PBL:2
| Project presentation | –> | Individual or team research | –> | Design development | –> | Building, creating, evaluations | –> | Project delivery |
In my art class, this looks like:
| Lesson presentation and class discussion | > | Individual or team research on chosen topic | > | Design development and journal sketches | > | Individual building, creating, and self-evaluations | > | Hanging and displaying pieces |
With this project, students will make connections with the past by collaborating to build a hallway display project that will educate and entertain through the showcase of student art on a timeline.
Unit Content
Objectives
This unit allows students to look at the past in several different ways to learn more about Conquistadors and Native cultures of Central and South America, as well as how the clash of the New World and the Old World changed the entire world forever. Students will get a geographical viewpoint through maps of native lands, trade routes, and conquests, a historical viewpoint through a timeline of events, and an artistic viewpoint through art of and about the period. Students will discuss what they have learned and exhibit it through the art they will create about a chosen topic from the time and people. Lists of items from the Columbian exchange, including plants, animals, and devastating diseases will be presented. The objective here is for students to get a better understanding of what the two worlds were like before colonization and the takeover of the Spanish, Portuguese, and other Europeans based on what they did and did not have prior to contact.
Timeline
First, a very basic timeline of major events of Central and South America will be introduced, pre and post Spanish “Invasion” compared to a few things going on in Europe at the time for comparison and help students put things in perspective before working on the more detailed timeline. Students should be encouraged to discuss and share their own knowledge.
| 1420- Triple Alliance of the Aztec Empire | 1501- Michelangelo working on “David” in Italy and in 1503 Leonardo da Vinci starts painting the Mona Lisa. |
| 1492- Columbus lands in the New World | 1512- Copernicus proclaims the Sun is the center of the Solar System. |
| 1502- Moctezuma becomes ruler of the Aztecs and the first enslaved people are brought to the New World. | 1519-1591- Magellan and Elcano lead the first expedition to circumnavigate the Earth. |
| 1521- Aztecs defeated | 1527- Sack of Rome brings an end to the Italian Renaissance. |
| 1530- Incan Civil War | 1557- Habsburg Spain declares Bankruptcy, King Philip II of Spain will have to declare Bankruptcy 3 more times by 1596. |
| 1572- Incan Empire defeated | 1564- William Shakespear is born. |
1420- A triple alliance was forged between cities of Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, and Tlacopan to cement Aztec empire. Tenochtitlan became the capital of the Aztec empire and is now the historic center of Mexico City. The original city was built on a marshy island in Lake Texcoco, built up with canals, causeways, and floating gardens. The middle feature of Mexico’s flag is based on the story that the Aztec people were sent out by their God to find their new home and that an eagle with a snake in its beak would mark the center of their new empire. They found such an eagle at this lake.3
1492- Columbus landed in the Caribbean, explored what is now the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola collecting goods, and people, as he went.
1493- During Columbus’ second voyage he founded Isabella, the first permanent Spanish settlement in the new world. He of course thought he was in Asia, as he intended, and refused to ever believe that he wasn’t. In a letter to the King and Queen of Spain he makes note of the “Indian Sea” and the “native Indians”.4
1494- Treaty of Tordesillas was drawn up by the Pope which divided the lands of Central and South America between Portugal and Spain.5
1502- Montezuma became the ruler of the Aztec. This same year, Amerigo Vespucci, an explorer from Florence, Italy discovered that Brazil and the other lands that Columbus stumbled upon were not part of Asia. He dubbed the continent and its islands the New World.6
1507- “America” was first named by the cartographer Martin Waldseemuller in honor of Amerigo Vespucci.7
1517- Hernandez de Cordoba began to explore the Yucatan Peninsula and Mexico’s east coast.
1519- Hernan Cortes, known as ruthless conquistador, arrives in the Aztec Empire and enters capital of Tenochtitlan. He spent almost 30 years exploring and introducing Spanish culture to the New World. He made Spanish the official language and replaced the Aztec religion with Christianity.8
1520- Aztecs in Tenochtitlan were massacred by the Spanish led by Pedro de Alvarado. Montezuma allegedly died at the hands of his own people, disgruntled, and angrily throwing rocks and spears at him. The Spanish were outnumbered and driven out. Smallpox, in the meantime, killed 1000’s of natives, leaving an opening for the Spanish to reinvade the following year.9
1521- The Aztecs were defeated, and Tenochtitlan was destroyed after a 3-month siege by the Spanish and allies. Cortez then raided across Mesoamerica and became the first ruler of New Spain.10
1527- Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca was one of four survivors of the Narvaez expedition in Florida. He spent eight years living with natives as a slave and then a friend, changing his perspective on making slaves of natives and plundering the land. He is known as the first historian of Texas.11
1530-1533- Francisco Pizarro made contact with the Inca empire in Peru amidst a civil war. Seeing opportunity, he quickly returned with a small force and captured the Inca ruler, capturing Cuzco and taking over the Inca empire. He founded the city of Lima where he was later assassinated.12
1554-1558- The Popul Vuh, the creation story of the Maya, was written by Quiche-Maya nobility. It was written using a system of Mayan hieroglyphs, the Mayan being “the only people in the New World who had a writing system at the time of the Spanish conquest.”13
1572- The last Inca empire was defeated by Spanish ending all resistance to Spanish colonization in South America.
Trade and Transfer
Items brought from the Americas to Afro-Eurasian countries:
Tomatoes Cassava Turkeys Hammocks
Chili Peppers Pumpkins Guinea pigs
Potatoes Vanilla Llama
Maize Avocado Alpacas
Tobacco Rubber trees
Cocoa
Items (and diseases) brought from Afro-Eurasia to the Americas:
Coffee Beans Cattle Smallpox Languages
Sugarcane Sheep Influenza Religion
Wheat Pigs Typhus
Oats Horses Measles
Rice Honeybees Malaria
Bananas Rats Yellow fever
Onions Chickens Diphtheria
Citrus fruits Whooping cough
Apples
Cotton
Dandelions
Grapes
These are incomplete lists, of course; however, students can be encouraged to add to them.14 For example, there were hundreds of species of plants (and weeds) that were introduced from the Old World, even invasive species that have taken over native species that once thrived. “Today, an American botanist can easily find whole meadows in which he is hard put to find a single species of plant that grew in America in pre-Columbian times.”15 The Columbian Exchange not only transferred goods and ideas from Afro-Eurasia to and from the New World, but it also introduced items between North America, Central America, and South America. The white potato, for instance, was a product of South America in the Andean highlands. After it was introduced to Europe through the Columbian Exchange it was then taken to New England by the Scotch-Irish all the way from Europe in the 1700’s.16 Interestingly enough, the potato was later an item of woe for the Irish when a blight infection of the potatoes grown in Ireland started killing people across Europe. The potato was a monocultured crop and the blight spread quickly, destroying not only a food source for the Irish and the rest of Europe, but also destroying the income of farmers all over the country.17 The discovery of the New World altered the entire world in so many ways, students (and teachers) may be amazed at what they find.
The Milpa and the Three Sisters
Note: This section I will share with students as my example of picking a topic, researching for it, and creating work based on that research.
When the Spanish first arrived in the New World, they considered the natives of the lands to be primitive savages, unrefined, and even unintelligent despite their having systems for counting, trade, community, writing, extensive storytelling, more advanced calendars than that of the Europeans, and even had libraries of books which were mostly destroyed by the invaders of their lands (who claimed native peoples had no written history or literacy to speak of).18 Little did the Spanish know, the natives of New World were more advanced than the Spanish wanted to admit. For instance, “When the Spaniards arrived, the Triple Alliance ruled central Mexico from ocean to ocean and Tenochtitlan was bigger and richer than any city in Spain.”19
One of the many things that confused and befuddled the Spanish was the traditional way of farming using a milpa. The milpa is a small field that is cleared out, planted with maize and then other species, usually beans, chiles, squashes or potatoes, used for a few seasons, then abandoned for a new plot. Not only were the natives of the New World using crop rotation, but they also could grow more per square foot than the traditional European method of crop monocultures. Even more important, the Milpa is nutritionally and environmentally complimentary. In the mid 1800’s, Irish farmers would come to lean heavily on potatoes, an import to the new world, but not on crop rotation. Because of this, the potatoes became diseased with a blight. There were over a million deaths in Ireland and across Europe due to the potato blight and the following potato famine, unfortunately, due to the lack of crop rotation.20
In her book, Braiding Sweetgrass, Robin Wall Kimmerer gives a beautiful description of the Milpa.21 She describes the sounds of the plants, the crispness in the papery rustle of corn leaves, the sound of the growing bean vines that only caterpillars can hear, and the creaking and popping of the pumpkin as it swells and grows. She tells of corn being the firstborn. She grows the fastest and tallest to help support that middle sister, the next to pop out of the ground, the bean. The bean first produces leaves at the ground level, then she spends time growing up and around the sturdy corn stalk, catching up with and growing upwards with the corn. Finally, the squash begins her journey out of the ground and away from the corn and beans, spreading out to find her own way. Her leaves and flowers grow out to protect the soil and keep moisture in, bristly vines and leaves deter plant-eating insects from the Milpa.
An art student in one of the Kimmerer’s Botany classes noticed the amazing composition of the plants as she was drawing them in her notes. “Look at the composition…It’s just like our art teacher described the elements of design in studio today. There is unity, balance, and color. It’s perfect.” The author also likens the Milpa to a piece of art. “The organic symmetry of forms belongs together; the placement of every leaf, the harmony of shapes speak their message. Respect one another, support one another, bring your gift to the world and receive the gifts of others, and there will be enough for all.”22
There are various stories that tell of the three sisters. In one telling, the sisters were traveling in the winter. They were dressed in yellow, green, and orange, respectively. The family in the dwelling that they stopped at fed them generously with what little they had. In return, the sisters gifted the family seeds of themselves, corn, beans, and squash so that the winters to come wouldn’t be so slim.23
Teaching Strategies
Teaching strategies are used every day in every classroom. Even if a teacher does nothing, students will inevitably learn something, it is human nature. That consciously incompetent teaching strategy would be the ultimate self-paced, most student-guided education model ever used; it might also be the worst teaching strategy ever wielded. However teachers use teaching strategies, the goal is to use them with conscious competence.
Turn and Task
This strategy follows the same logic as “turn and talk.” Like a “turn and talk,” students will need to communicate, but rather than just talking about the topic at hand, they have a task card with something to achieve, as well. Students will receive a card with their task in groups of two (or three, if necessary). Each pair will read the task card and clarify that their partner understands the task. When both students understand the task card expectations they can start on the task. The teacher must be circulating to be sure this is happening and available for questions. This is a great way for students to begin to get some information for the timeline, gather ideas for what they want to personally research for their project, and to interact with each other.
Examples: What were six animals that were brought to the New World from Europe? Other than animals, plants, and physical objects, what was brought to the New World from Spain? What happened with the Inca in 1572 and why was it important for the Spanish?
Timelines
Timelines are diagrams, they are illustrated teaching tools. A timeline is a visual cue to understanding events over an extended period of time. Not only will students be using our class researched timeline to develop a concept of time of the Spanish conquest, but it will also help create a comparison of what was going on in Central America during this period compared to the rest of the world. Students will be researching items on task cards to add to the timeline in the correct order. They will first create the timeline on an online document, then on the hallway wall with their own art.
Interleaving
Interleaving is a teaching strategy that incorporates using mixed learning and concepts together.24 Instead of just giving dates on task cards, students may get a date, a vegetable, and a conquistador’s name. The students then must find information on all three things. They may search for information in books provided, textbooks, and online (reliable sources only, no Wiki), with citation. Also, students are doing research, creating a timeline, and creating art pieces with artist statements for the unit. They are working as a whole group (creating the timeline), in pairs (researching information for the timeline), and alone (creating their own art piece). This mixed approach to learning allows students to interact with information and each other in diverse ways and leads to deeper meaning and understanding of the information. Interleaving is a way of learning in which students get a deeper understanding of and connection with information rather than the rote memorization of block learning, such as learning one’s ABC’s or multiplication tables.
Activities
Spanish “Invasion” Timeline
We will first discuss the timeline between the rise of the Aztec Empire to the fall of the Incan Empire. We will go over major events, conquistadors and other prominent figures, and the material goods that came to and from the New World through artwork, documentation images, and writings from first person accounts, including Christopher Columbus and Alvar Nunez Cabeza de Vaca. Students will be put into pairs or groups of three as necessary and given a few pieces of paper with dates or names on them (task cards). The group will need to do some quick research to find several details about the importance of the date, person, place, or thing on the task card and add a summary to an online Google Doc in order by date. All groups will be working on the same document simultaneously putting in different information, so they will need to create a separate document to copy and paste from. Students will build out the timeline that will become the document for their choices of what to create for their art project. If a student wants to add anything to the timeline that they find interesting within their research to do their own project on, they may clear it through the teacher to be put on the timeline.
| Historical Date | Main Topic | Detail | Detail | Detail | Student Name |
Art Project
The pieces of art that students create will be based on something in the timeline. I would like to give students a great deal of freedom in what they are creating but do expect it to be something recognizable (therefore, not abstract). They will put their names on the Google Doc to identify what they are basing their piece from, and no one else can claim that item. I will put a mark on other classes documents to indicate that someone from another class is already doing something for each line item of the timeline and each object from the Columbian Exchange as students choose what they are doing. I will encourage students to choose something that is not marked but they can make a case for the uniqueness of their item/person/event if they feel the need to double up. The idea is to get as many things on the list covered as possible.
Students will be allowed to represent their chosen topic in one of four ways: Scientifically, historically, in a still-life, or artistically. Students will research into the history of their topic of choice. They should find examples, stories, historical context, and any other relevant information they can find before starting to plan for their artwork. If a student chooses a conquistador or an explorer they should research that person’s contributions, routes, interactions, accomplishments, etc. If a location is chosen, research can include physical location, physical topography, climate, peoples and tribes, interactions with Europeans, and why it was significant during the period we are studying. If a commodity is chosen the student should research its origin, how it changed or affected the lives of the people using it, stories, and its significance. Figures 1-3 show my representations of three of the four options using the example of the Milpa and The Three Sisters.
Artist Statement and Hallway Timeline
As students finish their work, they will need to write an artist’s statement for their piece. The statement should start with their name, the date the work was finished, the materials or medium used, and the title of the piece. A personal statement about the piece including background information of what they learned on their topic and/or a reflection of what their piece represents should be written out below. With their art and statement cards, students will place their work on the timeline down our hallway in the correct order.
It is anticipated that the students will learn from each other during this unit. Not only in the classroom, but students outside of the class will also learn from the timeline in the hallway. Students in the halls may recognize an item, a historical figure, or be drawn in by a project or two. My ultimate goal is to bring recognition to the cultures that melded together to create the Hispanic culture of Central and South America today and hope that students find some inspiration in it, as well.
Resources
“1. Acts of Transfer.” The Archive and the Repertoire, December 31, 2020, 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780822385318-003.
“19A 19B 19C.” n.d. Oxford University Press. Accessed January 15, 2024.
This is a draft of a textbook, but offers a good basic timeline and many images to help introduce the Aztec way of life.
“The Columbian Exchange Lesson Plan & Free Resources.” https://www.oerproject.com/, 2024. https://www.oerproject.com/the-columbian-exchange.
This is where I pulled most of my list information for the Columbian Exchange. Very helpful, simple map.
Crosby, Alfred W. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and cultural consequences of 1492. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972.
“Francisco Pizarro.” History.com. Accessed March 31, 2024. https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/francisco-pizarro.
Fraser, Evan D. “Social Vulnerability and Ecological Fragility: Building Bridges between Social and Natural Sciences Using the Irish Potato Famine as a Case Study.” Conservation Ecology 7, no. 2 (October 2003). https://doi.org/10.5751/es-00534-070209.
“Irish Potato Famine: Date, Cause & Great Hunger – History.” History.com. Accessed March 31, 2024. https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/irish-potato-famine.
This link provides History.com’s unique and interesting look at the Potato Famine.
“The Journey of Alvar Nuñez.” PBS. Accessed March 31, 2024. https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-west/the-journey-of-alvar-nu%C3%B1ez.
Kimmer, Robin W. Braiding Sweetgrass. Milkweed Editions, 2020.
A beautifully written book based on historical and scientific information with personal reflections by the author. This book was used originally because of my interest in the milpa and the stories of The Three Sisters. However, it is well worth the read for experiencing beyond the garden and into the culture of a people.
Lopez-Ridaura, Santiago, Luis Barba-Escoto, Cristian A. Reyna-Ramirez, Carlos Sum, Natalia Palacios-Rojas, and Bruno Gerard. “Maize Intercropping in the Milpa System. Diversity, Extent and Importance for Nutritional Security in the Western Highlands of Guatemala.” Nature News, February 12, 2021. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-82784-2.
Mann, Charles C. 1491: New revelations of the Americas before Columbus. New York: Knopf, 2012.
Mann, Charles C. 1493: Uncovering the New World Columbus Created. New York, ny: Alfred A. Knopf, 2015.
These two books by Charles Mann are an interesting look at the New World before and after Columbus’ expeditions.
McKay, Hill, Buckler, and Ebrey, A History of World Societies, vol. 2, 5th ed. (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2000), 506–08.
Montejo, Víctor, David Unger, and Luis Garay. Popol Vuh: A sacred book of the maya. México, D.F.: Artes De Mexico, 2005.
This book about the Popol Vuh was very enlightening. Not only does it give information about the original text, it also provides insight into the Maya people and the impact of the Europeans on them.
Nguyen, Hoa P. “How to Use Interleaving to Foster Deeper Learning.” Edutopia, June 11, 2021. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-use-interleaving-foster-deeper-learning/.
Northeastern State University. Accessed January 2024. https://nsuok.edu/heritage/three-sisters-legend.aspx.
“Spanish Conquest of the Americas – Oxford University Press.” Oxford University Press . Accessed January 26, 2024. https://www.oup.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0030/58197/Chapter-19-The-Spanish-conquest-of-the-Americas-1492-1572.pdf.
“What the Textbooks Have to Say about the Conquest of Mexico: Some Suggestions for Questions to Ask of the Evidence: AHA.” What the Textbooks Have To Say About the Conquest of Mexico: Some Suggestions for Questions to Ask of the Evidence | AHA. Accessed March 31, 2024. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico/for-students/what-the-textbooks-have-to-say-about-the-conquest-of-mexico#:~:text=Having%20allowed%20the%20Spanish%20forces,Texcoco%20on%20July%207%2C%201520.
Appendix
When integrating core subjects into my art lessons, I may use a standard and its specific sub-standards for the lesson or simply use the base standard, like the following for History.
WH.2 The student will analyze patterns of social, economic, political, and cultural changes during the rise of Western civilization and the Global Age (1400-1750 CE).
This standard follows what we will be looking at on our timeline for Central and South America. The closest sub-standard (below) will be touched on but will not drive the lesson.
WH.2.3 Analyze migration, settlement patterns, cultural diffusion, and the transformations caused by the competition for resources among European nations during the Age of Exploration.
Oklahoma Art Standards have three levels: Proficient (I), Advanced (II), and Accomplished (III). I generally try to gear my units to meet up with the Accomplished, level 3, expectations for Art.
VA.P.1: Utilize a variety of ideas and subject matter in the creation of original works of visual art.
III.VA.P.1.1 Synthesize knowledge of social, cultural, historical, and personal life with art-making approaches to create original, meaningful works of art or design.
This standard is exactly what I hope students will achieve with their art pieces. I want students to take the information I provide, integrate that with their own art abilities and knowledge, and create an artwork based on something they liked, appreciated, or connected with in the lesson.
VA.P.2: Use various media, supplies, and tools in an appropriate and safe manner in the creation of original visual artworks.
III.VA.P.2.1 Demonstrate understanding of balancing freedom and responsibility in the use of images, materials, tools, and equipment in the creation and circulation of creative work, while demonstrating safe handling of materials, tools, and equipment.
Students will have access to a large variety of supplies and tools. They are of course always expected to use them in an appropriate and safe manner; however, the level 3 expectation is that students will use the freedom of a wide range of materials appropriately and creatively.
Notes
1. https://www.oup.com.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0030/58197/Chapter-19-The-Spanish-conquest-of-the-Americas-1492-1572.pdf
2. 306117836_Vietnamese_Students_Awareness_towards_a_Project_Based_Learning_ Environment
3. https://www.history.com/news/aztec-empire-triple-alliance
4. article: Columbus Reports on his first Voyage.
5. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/treaty-tordesillas/
6. https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/amerigo-vespucci
7. Ibid
8. https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/hernan-cortes
9. https://www.history.com/topics/ancient-americas/aztecs
10. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico/for-students/what-the-textbooks-have-to-say-about-the-conquest-of-mexico#:~:text=Having%20allowed%20the%20Spanish%20forces,Texcoco%20on%20July%207%2C%201520.
11. https://www.pbs.org/kenburns/the-west/the-journey-of-alvar-nu%C3%B1ez
12. https://www.history.com/topics/exploration/francisco-pizarro
13. P. 22 Popul Vuh: Sacred book of the Quiche Maya People
14. OERproject.com The Columbian Exhange
15. P. 74 The Columbian Exchange
16. P. 66 Ibid
17. Evan Fraser, Conservation Ecology, Social vulnerability, and Ecological Fragility
18. P18 The Archive and the Repertoire, Acts of Transfer
19. Charles Mann, 1493 P. 361
20. https://www.history.com/topics/immigration/irish-potato-famine
21. Braiding Sweetgrass, Robin Wall Kimmerer
22. Ibid. P. 132
23. Braiding Sweetgrass
24. https://www.edutopia.org/article/how-use-interleaving-foster-deeper-learning/
25. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-021-82784-2